Encyclopedia of Entomology - Anna’s Archive (2024)

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cover-large.TIF 1
front-matter.pdf 2
HalfTitle.pdf -1
Encyclopedia of Entomology 2
TitlePage.pdf -1
Encyclopedia of Entomology 3
Copyright.pdf 4
Editorial.pdf -1
Editorial Board 5
Acknowledgment.pdf -1
Acknowledgments 7
Preface.pdf -1
Preface 9
Highlights.pdf -1
Highlights of the Encyclopedia of Entomology 11
Major Taxa of Insects and Their Near Relatives 11
Other Groups 11
Morphology and Anatomy 13
Physiology 13
Genetics 14
Behavior 14
Ecology and Evolution 15
Microbiology and Pathology 16
Humans and Insects 16
Notable and Pioneer Entomologists 17
Pest Management 20
Pesticides and Pesticide Application 21
Pests Groups and Their Management 22
Medical and Veterinary Entomology 22
Arthropods of Economic Importance 23
List of Contributors.pdf -1
List of Contributors 29
fulltext.pdf 65
Abafi-Aigner, Lajos (Ludwig Aigner) 65
Reference 399
Abaxial Surface 66
Abbott, John 66
Reference 399
AbbottŁ s Formula 66
Abdomen 66
Abdomen of Hexapods 67
The Pregenital Region 67
The Genital Region 69
References 407
Abdominal Pumping 72
Abiotic Disease 72
Abiotic Factors 72
Abnormality 72
Abrocomophagidae 72
Absolute Methods of Sampling 72
Acanaloniidae 72
Acanthmetropodidae 72
Acanthopteroctetidae 72
Acanthosomatidae 73
Acaricide 73
Acaricides or Miticides 73
Acaricide Classification 73
Insecticides as Acaricides 79
Acaricide Types 79
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 79
Essential Oils 79
Inorganics 80
Petroleum Oils 80
Organosulfurs 81
Organotins 81
Insecticides with Acaricidal Activity 81
Organophosphorus Pesticides 81
Carbamates 82
Formamides 82
Pyrethroids 82
Pyrroles 82
Other Acaricides 82
Azadirachtin 408
Avermectin 83
Clofentezine and Hexythiazox 83
Tebufenpyrad 83
Acaricides and Fungicides 83
Resistance in Mites 83
Methods for Evaluating Resistance 84
Slide Dip Bioassays 84
Leaf Dip or Leaf Spray Bioassays 84
Whole Plant Bioassays 84
Field Tests 84
References 407
Accessory Cell 85
Accessory Circulatory Organ 85
Accessory Gland 85
Accessory Vein 86
Accessory Hearts 86
Accidental Host 86
Accidental Species 86
Acclimation 86
Accuracy 86
Acephalous 86
Acerentomidae 86
Acetylcholine 86
Acetylcholine Esterase 86
Achilidae 86
Aclerididae 86
Acoustical Communication in Heteroptera (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) 87
Production of Vibrational Signals and Songs 87
Reception of Vibrational Signals and Songs 88
Transmission of Vibratory Signals and Songs 90
Acoustic Characteristics of Vibrational Signals 91
Specificity and Variability of Vibratory Signals 91
Vibratory Signaling in the Families of Heteroptera 93
Corixidae 93
Notonectidae 93
Reduviidae 94
Miridae 95
Tingidae 95
Cydnidae 95
Pentatomidae 96
References 407
Acoustic Aposematism (Clicking) by Caterpillars 97
Reference 399
Acoustic Communication in Insects 97
Sound 97
Sound Production 99
Sound Reception 100
Functions of Acoustic Signals 101
References 407
Acrididae 102
Acriology 102
Acrobat Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 102
Acroceridae 102
Acrolepiidae 103
Acrolophidae 103
Acron 103
Acrosternite 103
Action Threshold 103
Active Dispersal 103
Active Ingredient (AI) 103
Active Space 103
Active Ventilation 103
Aculae 103
Aculeus 103
Acute 104
Acute Bee Paralysis 104
Aculeate 104
Acute Toxicity 104
Adaptation 104
Adaptation of Indigenous Insects to Introduced Crops 104
References 407
Adaxial Surface 107
Adeheterothripidae 107
Adelgidae 107
Adelidae 107
Adephaga 108
Aderidae 108
Adfrontal Areas 108
Adelphoparasitism 108
Adherence 108
Adipohemocyte 108
Adipokinetic Hormone (AKH) 108
Adipokinetic and Hypertrehalosemic Neurohormones 108
Historical Perspective 108
Chemistry of the AKH/RPCH Family 109
Physiological Actions 113
References 407
Adjuvants 115
Adoption Substance 116
Adult 357
Adulticide 116
Adultoid Reproductive 116
Adult Transport 116
Adventitious Veins 116
Adventive 116
Aedeagus 116
Aenictopecheidae 116
Aeolothripidae 116
Aepophilidae 116
Aeshnidae 116
Aetalionid Treehoppers 117
Aerial Photography 117
Aeropile 117
Aerosol 117
Aesthetic Injury Level 117
Aesthetic Pest 117
Aestivation 117
Aetalionidae 117
African Armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 117
Biology and Ecology 119
Seasonal Movements and Armyworm Outbreaks 120
Economic Importance of Outbreaks of S exempta 121
Survey and Control 122
References 407
African Honey Bee, Africanized Honey Bee, or Killer Bee, Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Apidae) 123
Description and Behavior 125
Life Cycle and Genetic Dominance 127
Public Risks 128
Managing African Bee Colonies 129
Conclusion 292
References 407
African Horse Sickness Viruses 130
References 407
Africanized Bees 286
African Mahogany-Feeding Caterpillar, Heteronygmia dissimilis aurivillius (Lepidoptera: Lymantriida) 132
References 407
African Maiden Moths (Lepidoptera: Thyretidae) 134
References 407
African Pine-Feeding Grasshoppers, Plagiotriptus pinivorus (Descamps) and P Hippiscus (Gerst.) (Orthoptera: Eumastacidae) 134
References 407
African Primitive Ghost Moths (Lepidoptera: Prototheoridae) 136
References 407
African Red Tick, Rhipicephalus evertsi, (Acarina: Ixodidae) 136
African Skipper Moths (Lepidoptera: Apoprogonidae) 136
References 407
African Sleeping Sickness 137
African Slug Caterpillar Moths (Lepidoptera: Chrysopolomidae) 137
References 407
African Swine Fever 137
Agaonidae (Hymenoptera) 138
References 407
Agathiphagidae 138
Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe 138
References 407
Age Polythism 139
Aggregation 139
Aggregation Pheromone 139
Aggregative Response 139
Agnathous 139
Aggressive Mimicry 140
Agonoxenidae 140
Agricolous 140
Agricultural Chemicals 140
Agricultural Consultant 140
Agricultural Crop Pests in Southeast Asia Including Southern China 140
Insects of Rice 140
Rice Leafhopper and Planthopper Complex 141
Sugar Cane Insects 142
Fruit Tree Insects: Mango-Citrus-Banana-Litchi 142
Litchi and Longan Fruit Insects 144
Vegetable Insects 144
References 407
Agroecology 145
Nutrient Cycling 145
Cropping Systems 146
Pest Management 146
Landscape Ecology 146
References 407
Agromyzidae 148
Agyrtidae 148
AI 148
Alarm-Defense System 149
Air Sacs 149
Alarm Pheromone 149
Alarm Pheromones of Insects 149
Hemipteran Alarm Pheromones 149
Alarm Pheromones of Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 149
Alarm Pheromones of True Bugs (Hemiptera, Heteroptera) 151
Alarm Pheromones of Social Insects (Hymenoptera) 154
The Honeybee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) 154
Alarm Pheromones of Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 155
Alarm Pheromones of Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) 157
co*ckroach Alarm Pheromones (Blattodea: Blattidae) 157
Alarm Pheromones of Beetles (Coleoptera) 157
Lacewing Alarm Pheromones (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) 158
Conclusions 158
References 407
Alarm-Recruitment System 159
Alary Muscles 159
Alate (pl., Alatae or Alates) 159
Alderflies 159
Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Megaloptera) 159
References 407
Aldrovandi, Ulisse (Ulysse, Ulysses) 161
References 407
Aldyidae 161
Aleyrodidae 161
Alexander, Charles Paul 161
Reference 399
Alfalfa Leafcutting Bee, Megachile rotundata (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) 162
Life History 384
Domestication 164
Natural Enemies 355
References 407
Alfalfa (Lucerne) Pests and their Management 165
Alfalfa Weevil, Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 174
Root Weevils, Sitona spp., Atrichonotus taeniatulus (Berg), Others (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 169
Blister Beetles (Epicauta spp.) (Coleoptera: Meloidae) 170
Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 170
Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 255
Plant Bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae) 172
Grasshoppers (Melanoplus spp and Phaulacridium spp) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 172
Cutworms, Armyworms and Budworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 173
Lucerne Flea, Sminthurus viridis (Collembola) 173
Mites (Acari) 173
Pest Management in Alfalfa 173
References 407
Alfalfa Weevil, Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 174
Alga (pl., Algae) 174
Alien 174
Alienicolae 174
Alimentary Canal and Digestion 175
The Foregut 175
The Midgut 176
The Hindgut 177
Digestive Enzyme Secretion 178
Carbohydrate Digestion 178
Lipid Digestion 179
Protein Digestion 179
Absorption of Digested Products 180
Gut pH 180
Illustrative Examples of Diversity in Food, Form and Function of the Alimentary Canal 180
References 407
Alimentary System 182
Alinotum 183
Alitrunk 183
Allatostatins 183
Allatotropins 183
Alleculidae 183
Allegheny Mound Ant, Formica exsectoides (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 183
References 407
Allele 185
Allelochemic 185
Allelochemicals 185
A World of Allelochemicals 186
Sequestration and its Consequences 187
Sequestration of Insect Toxins by Vertebrates: A Significant ŁAllelochemicalŽ Phenomenon 187
Initial Processing of Allelochemicals by Specialists 188
Immediate Allelochemical Excretion 188
Allelochemical Metabolism 188
Selective Biomagnification of Allelochemicals in Tissues 189
The Diverse Functions of ŁCapturedŽ Allelochemicals 189
Insect Sequestration of Bacterial Compounds and their Glandular Secretion 190
Additives in Defensive Glands 190
Regurgitation and Defecation of Allelochemicals 191
Allelochemicals as Tissue Colorants 191
Allelochemicals as Inhibitors of Toxin Production 191
Allelochemicals as Pheromonal Precursors 191
Allelochemicals as Structural Paint 192
Allelochemicals as Metabolites in Primary Metabolic Pathways 192
Allelochemicals as Agents of Sexual Development 192
Allelochemical Discharge from Non-glandular Reservoirs 192
Allelochemicals as Defensive Agents of Eggs 193
Allelochemicals as a Copulatory Bonus 193
Allelochemicals as Synergists for Pheromones 193
Allelochemicals as Phagostimulants 193
Allelochemicals as Inducers of Detoxifying Enzymes 194
Allelochemicals as Allomonal Precursors 194
Allelochemicals as Communicative ŁJammingŽ Agents 194
Quenchers of Phototoxic Allelochemicals 195
Antibiotic Functions of Allelochemicals 195
Specialists and Generalists: Two Selected Case Studies 195
The Monarch Butterfly, Danaus plexippus 196
The Lubber Grasshopper, Romalea microptera (also known as R guttata) 196
References 407
Allelopathy 198
AllenŁs Rule 198
Allochronic Speciation 198
Allogenic Succession 198
Allometric Growth 198
Allomone 198
Allopatric 198
Allopatric Speciation 198
Allophagic Speciation 198
Allozyme 198
Almond Seed Wasp, Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) 198
References 407
Alpha Taxonomy 200
Alternate Host 200
Alternation of Generations 200
Altruism 200
Alucitidae 200
Alula 200
Amazonian Primitive Ghost Moths (Lepidoptera: Neotheoridae) 201
References 407
Amber Insects: DNA Preserved? 201
Insect DNA in Amber? 202
References 407
Ambrosia Beetles 203
Ambush Bugs 204
Ameletopsidae 204
Amelitidae 204
Amerasinghe, Felix P 204
Reference 399
American Butterfly Moths (Lepidoptera: Hedylidae) 204
References 407
American Dog Tick 205
American False Tiger Moths (Lepidoptera: Dioptidae) 205
References 407
American Grasshopper, Schistocerca americana (Drury) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 205
Life History 384
Damage 386
Management 386
References 407
American Foulbrood 208
References 407
American Serpentine Leafminer, Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) 209
Life Cycle and Description 356
Egg 356
Larva 356
Adult 357
Host Plants 355
Damage 386
Natural Enemies 355
Management 386
Sampling 211
Insecticides 211
Cultural Practices 212
References 407
American Silkworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Apatelodidae) 212
References 407
American Swallowtail Moths (Lepidoptera: Sematuridae) 213
References 407
American Tropical Silkworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Oxytenidae) 213
References 407
Ametabolous 214
Ametropodidae 214
Amino Acid 214
Ammophilous 214
Amoebae 214
References 407
Amoebiasis 215
Amorphoscelididae 215
Amphienotomidae 215
Amphiposocidae 215
Amphipterygidae 215
Amphitheridae 215
Amphitoky 216
Amphizoidae 216
Amplification 216
Amplification Hosts 216
Ampulicidae 298
Anagrus Fairyflies (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) 216
Taxonomy and Adult Morphology 216
Biology 376
Behavior and Ecology 217
References 407
Anajapygidae 218
Anal Angle 218
Anal Cell 218
Anal Comb 218
Anal Gills 218
Anal Hooks 218
Anal Furrow 218
Anal Legs (Prolegs) 218
Anal Lobe 218
Anal Loop 218
Anal Plate 219
Anal Tube 219
Anal Vein 219
Anamorphosis 219
Anaxyelidae 219
Ancistrosyllidae 219
Andean Moon Moths (Lepidoptera: Cercophanidae) 219
References 407
Andesianidae 220
Andrenidae 220
Andrewartha, Herbert George 220
Reference 399
Androconia 221
Androparae 221
Anemometer 221
Anemotaxis 221
Angel Insects (Zoraptera) 221
Characteristics 221
Biology 376
References 407
Angoumois Grain Moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) 222
Angulate 222
Anholocyclic Life Cycle 222
Animal Sleeping Sickness 222
Anisembiidae 222
Anisopodidae 222
Anneal 222
Annual 222
Anobiidae 222
Anomosetidae 222
Anoplura 223
Anostostomatidae 223
Anteclypeus 223
Antagonist 223
Antecosta (pl., antecostae) 223
Antenna (pl., antennae) 223
Antennae of Hexapods 223
Segmented Type 223
Annulated Type 223
Filiform 225
Moniliform 225
Setaceous 225
Aristate 225
Stylate 225
Clavate 225
Capitate 226
Serrate 226
Pectinate 226
Flabellate 226
Lamellate 227
Plumose 227
Geniculate 227
References 407
Antennal Club 227
Antennal Fossa 227
Antennal Sclerite 227
Antennation 227
Antennule 227
Anterior 227
Anthelidae 227
Anther Smut of Carnations 227
Anthicidae 228
Anthocoridae 228
Anthomyiid Flies 228
Anthomyiidae 228
Anthomyzid Flies 228
Anthomyzidae 228
Anthophilous 228
Anthribidae 228
Anthrophagy 228
Anthrophoridae 228
Anthropocentric 228
Anthropomorphism 229
Anthropophilic 229
Antibiosis 229
Antibiotic 229
Anticodon 229
Antidote 229
Antidiuretic Hormones 229
Anti-Drift Agent 229
Antixenosis 229
Antlike Flower Beetles 229
Antlike Leaf Beetles 229
Antlike Stone Beetles 229
Antlions 229
Ant-plant Interactions 230
Ants as Seed Predators 230
Early ŁFarmersŽ (Attines) 232
Pastoralists 233
Biotic Defenses of Plants 235
Some Definitions and Constructs 235
Factors Driving Evolutionary Specialization 238
Conflicts of Interest between Partners 239
Long-Term Evolutionary Histories of Ant-Plant Associations 239
Implications of Exudate-Feeding for the Evolutionary Ecology of Ants 240
Some Parallels Between Ants and Plants 241
Nutritional Benefits to Plants (Myrmecotrophy) 242
Ants as Seed Dispersers, Pollinators and Partners of Insectivorous Plants 245
Seed Dispersal 245
Ants as Pollinators 246
Relationships Between Ants and Insectivorous Plants 247
Effects of Ant-Plant Interactions on the Diversification of Ants 248
References 407
Ants 249
Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 249
Morphology 375
Life/Colony Cycle 251
Control 324
References 407
Anus 254
Aorta 254
Apatelodidae 255
Aphelinidae 255
Aphelocheiridae 255
Aphicide 255
Aphididae 255
Aphidivorous 255
Aphidophagous 255
Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 255
Classification 256
Distribution 352
Origin and Evolution 257
Metamorphosis 258
External Morphology 258
Internal Anatomy 259
Digestive System 259
Bacteriocytes 259
Nervous System 259
Reproductive System 259
Excretion 261
Ingestion and Digestion 261
Sex Determination 261
Parthenogenesis 262
Life Cycles 262
Host Plant Alternation 262
Polymorphism and Polyphenism 264
Soldiers 265
Color Morphs 265
Aphid Influence on Host Plants 265
Negative Effect 265
Nutrient Drain 266
Pathogen Transmission 266
Salivary Toxins 266
Honeydew Excretion 266
Beneficial Effect 266
Galling 267
Ant-Aphid Mutualism 267
Natural Enemies of Aphids 268
Predators 269
Ladybird Beetles (Order Coleoptera, Family Coccinellidae) 269
Lacewings (Order Neuroptera, Families Chrysopidae, Hemerobiidae) 269
Hoverflies (Order Diptera, Family Syrphidae) 269
Cecid Flies (Order Diptera, Family Cecidomyiidae) 270
Anthocorid Bugs (Order Hemiptera, Family Anthocoridae) 270
Parasitoids 270
Hyperparasitoids 271
Aphid Defenses 272
Control of Aphids 272
Chemical Control and Resistance 272
Application of Aphicides 273
Resistance 273
Biological Control 273
Host Plant Resistance (HPR) 275
Modifying Aphid Behavior 275
Cultural Control 276
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 276
Important Aphid Species 276
Green Peach Aphid 277
Black Bean Aphid 277
Cotton or Melon Aphid 277
Oleander or Milkweed Aphid 278
Pea Aphid 278
Summary 278
References 407
Aphid Flies 279
Aphodius Grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 279
Aphrophoridae 279
Aphylidae 279
Apiary 279
Apical 279
Apiculture (Beekeeping) 279
Products of the Hive 280
The Honey Bee Colony 280
Major Developments in Beekeeping 280
Sources of Information 281
Equipment 282
Building Equipment 283
Protecting Wooden Equipment 283
Wearing Protective Equipment 283
Management 386
A Model Bee Yard 285
Inspecting Honey Bees 285
Honey Bee Ecotypes 286
Africanized Bees 286
Smoking Bees 287
Moving Bees 287
Package Bees 288
Dividing Colonies 288
Feeding Colonies 289
Producing the Honey Crop 289
Extracting the Honey Crop 289
Managing Swarming 290
Managing and Rearing Queens 290
Managing Wintering 291
Nectar and Pollen Sources 291
Commercial Pollination 292
Honey Contrasted to Pollination 292
Conclusion 292
References 407
Apidae 293
Apioceridae 293
Apivorous 293
Apneumone 294
Apodal 294
Apodeme 294
Apodous Larva 294
Apoidae 294
Apoid Larva 294
Apoid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Spheciformes) 294
Heterogynaeidae 295
Ampulicidae 298
Sphecidae 298
Crabronidae 299
Reproductive Biology of Females 299
Communal and Social Species 301
Mating Strategies 301
Economic Significance of Apoid Wasps 302
References 407
Apolysal Space 303
Apolysis 303
Apomorphic 303
Apomorphy 303
Apophysis 303
Apoprogonidae 303
Aposematism 303
References 407
Aposymbiotic 306
Apotome 307
Apparent Resources 307
Appeasem*nt Substance 308
Apple Maggot 308
Apple Pests and their Management 308
Major Economic Pests 308
Rosy Apple Aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini) 310
Biology and Impact 324
Decision Making 324
Control 324
Spotted Tentiform Leafminer, Phyllonorycter blancardella (Fabricius) 310
Biology and Impact 324
Decision Making 324
Control 324
Obliquebanded Leafroller, Choristoneura Rosaceana (Harris) 318
Biology and Impact 324
Decision Making 324
Control 324
Typhlodromus pyri (Scheuten) 321
Amblyseius fallacis (Garman) 321
Metaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt) 321
Zetzellia mali (Ewing) 321
Stethorus punctum (Leconte) 321
Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) 322
Biology and Impact 324
Decision Making 324
Control 324
Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) 323
Biology and Impact 324
Decision Making 324
Control 324
Apple Maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) 324
Biology and Impact 324
Decision Making 324
Control 324
References 407
Apple Proliferation 325
Apple Rust Mite, Aculus Schlechtendali (Acarnia: Eriophyidae) 325
Apposition Eye 325
Appressorium 325
Apterae 325
Apteropanorpidae 325
Apterous 325
Apterygote 325
Apystomyiidae 325
Aquatic Entomology and Flyfishing 325
Terminology: Entomology Versus Flyfishing 326
Morphological Importance 326
Ecological and Behavioral Importance 328
References 407
Aquifer 328
Aradidae 328
Arbovirus 328
Archaic Bell Moths (Lepidoptera: Neopseustidae) 328
References 407
Archaic Sun Moths (Lepidoptera: Acanthopteroctetidae) 329
References 407
Archeognatha 329
Archipsocidae 329
Arctics 329
Arctiidae 330
Arculus 330
Area-Wide Insect Pest Management 330
Characteristics of Area-Wide Pest Management 330
Benefits of Area-Wide Pest Management 333
Contingencies Often Dictate Changes in Strategy 333
Legal Authority for Area-Wide Pest Management 334
Apathy, Outrage and Area-Wide Pest Management 335
Invasive Pests, Global Trade and Area-Wide Pest Management 335
Selected Episodes in the History of Area-Wide Pest Management 336
Migratory Locusts 336
Insect Vectors of Human Diseases 337
Mosquito-Borne Diseases 338
Onchocerciasis Control Program in West Africa 338
Chagas Disease Vectors 340
Cattle Ticks 341
Contributions of Natural Enemies 341
Lasting Suppression of Cottony Cushion Scale by Vedalia Beetle 342
Lasting Suppression of Cassava Mealybug by Epidinocarsis lopezi 342
Area-Wide Conservation of Predators of the Brown Planthopper 342
Bark Beetles 343
Boll Weevil Eradication in the USA 344
Attempts to Sharply Define the Area-Wide Pest Management Strategy 345
Benefit-Cost Assessment and Discounting Net Returns 345
KniplingŁs Imperative 346
References 407
Argasid (Soft) Ticks (Acari: Ixodida: Argasidae) 347
Ecology 347
Feeding Behavior 348
Medical Importance 350
Veterinary Importance 350
Human Response to Tick Feeding 351
Management of Tick Populations 351
References 407
Argentine Ant, Linepithema humile (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Dolichoderinae) 352
Identification and Taxonomy 352
Distribution 352
Biology 376
Effects 354
Management 386
References 407
Argidae 355
Argyresthiidae 355
Arista 355
Armored Scales 355
Army Ants 355
Army Cutworm, Euxoa auxiliaris (Grote) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 355
Host Plants 355
Natural Enemies 355
Life Cycle and Description 356
Egg 356
Larva 356
Pupa 357
Adult 357
Damage 386
Management 386
References 407
Armyworm, Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 358
Life History 384
Damage 386
Management 386
References 407
Arnett, Jr., Ross Harold 361
References 407
Arolium 362
Arrestant 362
Arrhenogenic 362
Arrhenophanidae 362
Arrhenotoky 362
Artematopididae 362
Artheneidae 362
Arthropleidae 362
Arthropod-Associated Plant Effectors (AAPEs): Elicitors and Suppressors of Crop Defense 363
Volicitin 363
Caeliferins 364
Inceptin and Related Peptides 365
Bruchins 365
Glucose Oxidase 365
Other Systems for Consideration 366
Significance of AAPEs 366
References 407
Arthropods 367
Articulation 368
Ascalaphidae 368
Ascosphaera apis 368
References 407
Ascoviruses 369
References 407
Asexual 369
Ash-Gray Leaf Bugs 369
Ash Whitefly, Siphoninus phillyreae (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 370
Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) 370
References 407
Asiatic Garden Beetle, Maladera castanea (Coleoptera: Scarabeidae) 372
Asilidae 373
Asiopsocidae 373
Asiopsocidae 373
Asparagus Aphid, Brachycorynella asparagi (Mordvilko) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 373
Life History 384
Damage 386
Management 386
References 407
Aspergillus spp Fungi 374
Aspirator 375
Assassin Bugs, Kissing Bugs and Others (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) 375
Taxonomy 375
Morphology 375
Biology 376
Some Aspects of Distribution 379
Ecological and Economic Significance 379
References 407
Assemblage 383
Associative Learning 384
Assimilation Efficiency 384
Astatidae 384
Asteiid Flies 384
Asteiidae 384
Aster Leafhopper, Macrosteles quadrilineatus Forbes (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 384
Life History 384
Damage 386
Management 386
References 407
Asterolecaniidae 387
Aster Yellows 387
Ateluridae 387
Athericid Flies 387
Athericidae 387
Astrotaxis 387
Asymmetric Competition 387
Asymmetric PCR 387
Asynchronous Muscle 387
ATP 387
Atrophy 387
Attelabidae 387
Attenuation 388
Attractant 388
Attraction of Insects to Organic Sulfur Compounds in Plants 388
Glucosinolates 388
Organic Sulfur Compounds in Allium Plants 389
References 407
Audinet-Serville, Jean-Guillaume 390
Reference 399
Audouin, Jean-Victor 391
Reference 399
Augmentation 391
Augmentative Biological Control 391
Examples of Augmentative Releases 392
Controversies about Augmentative Releases 392
When and Where are Releases Made? 393
Some Logistical and Ethical Issues 394
Time is of the Essence 395
Costs of Releasing Natural Enemies 395
Key Research Needs 396
Future of Augmentation 396
References 407
Auricular Openings 398
Australian Archaic Sun Moths (Lepidoptera: Lophocoronidae) 398
References 407
Australian Lappet Moths (Lepidoptera: Anthelidae) 398
References 407
Australian Primitive Ghost Moths (Lepidoptera: Anomosetidae) 399
Reference 399
Australian Realm 399
Australian Sheep Blowfly, Lucilia cuprina Wiedemann (Diptera: Calliphoridae) 399
References 407
Australian Silkworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Carthaeidae) 402
References 407
Austrophasmatidae 402
Autecology 402
Autocidal Control 402
Autoecious Life Cycle 402
Attevidae 403
Aulacidae 403
Aulacigastrid Flies 403
Aulacigastridae 403
Australembiidae 403
Australian Parasite Moths (Lepidoptera: Cyclotornidae) 403
References 407
Australimyzidae 403
Austremerellidae 403
Austroniidae 404
Austroperlidae 404
Austropetaliidae 404
Autogenic Succession 404
Autogenous 404
Autoradiography 404
Autoregulatory Control 404
Autosomes 404
Autotomy 404
Autotroph 404
Auxiliary Vein 404
Auxiliae 404
Avermectins 404
Avian Malaria, Bird Malaria 405
References 407
Axenic 408
Axenic Culture 408
Axiidae 408
Axillary 408
Axon 408
Azadirachtin 408
fulltext_2.pdf 409
Babesia 409
Babesiosis 409
Bacillary Paralysis 409
Bacillus larvae (=Paenibacillus larvae; Bacteria) 409
Bacillus sphaericus 409
Taxonomy 409
Target Range 410
Field Use 410
The Insecticidal Toxins 410
References 411
Bacillus thuringiensis 412
References 414
Backswimmers 414
Bacterial Conjugation 414
Bacterial Wilt of Corn 414
Bacterial Wilt of Cucumbers 414
Bacteremia 414
Bacteriophage 414
Bacteriophage Wo 414
References 416
Baculoviridae 416
Baculoviruses 416
References 421
Baetidae 422
Baetiscidae 422
Bagworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) 422
References 422
Bait 422
Balanced Mortality Hypothesis 423
Balance of Nature 423
References 423
Banana Pests and Their Management 423
Banana Weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 424
Sugarcane Weevil, Metamasius hemipterus sericeus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 424
Biology 424
Pest Status 425
Trapping and Monitoring 425
Chemical Control 425
Cultural Control 426
Biological Control 426
Entomopathogens 426
Natural Enemies 426
Banana Pseudostem Weevil, Odoiporous longicollis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 426
Biology 427
Pest Status 427
Control Measures 427
Cultural Control 427
Chemical Control 427
Host Plant Resistance 428
Banana Scab Moth, Nacoleia octasema (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 428
Biology 428
Pest Status 428
Control Measures 428
Chemical Control 428
Biological Control 429
Host Plant Resistance 429
The Banana Skipper, Erionota thrax (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) 429
Biology 429
Pest Status 430
Control Measures 430
Banana Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) 430
Biology 430
Pest Status 431
Control Measures 431
The Banana Aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 431
Biology 432
Pest Status 432
Control Measures 433
Chemical Control 433
Biological Control 433
References 433
Banana Weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 433
The Host Crop 434
Biology and Life Cycle 434
Adult Stage 434
Immature Stages 435
Semiochemicals 435
Monitoring 435
Damage Assessment 435
Population Densities 436
Pest Status 436
Integrated Pest Management 437
Cultural Control (Habitat Management) 437
Crop Sanitation 437
Trapping 438
Biological Control 438
Classical Biological Control 438
Indigenous Natural Enemies 438
Microbial Control 439
Host Plant Resistance 440
Botanical Control 441
Chemical Control 441
References 442
Band 442
Band Application 442
Banded Thrips 442
Bandwinged Grasshoppers 442
Banks Grass Mite, Oligonychus pratensis (Banks) 442
Barb 442
Barber, Herbert Spencer 443
Reference 443
Barberry Whitefly, Parabemisia myricae (Kuwana) 443
Bark Beetles 443
Bark Beetles in the Genus Dendroctonus 443
References 445
Bark-Gnawing Beetles 445
Bark-Lice, Book-Lice or Psocids (Psocoptera) 445
Morphology 446
Head 446
Thorax 447
Abdomen 450
Systematics 451
Suborder: Trogiomorpha 452
Suborder: Troctomorpha 453
Suborder: Psocomorpha 454
Reproductive Biology 455
Courtship and Mating 455
Eggs, Oviposition, Hatching, Viviparity, Parthenogenesis 455
Postembryonic Development 456
Feeding 457
Natural Enemies 457
Parasites 457
Parasitoids 457
Ectoparasites 457
Predators 457
Defense Mechanisms 458
Dispersal 458
Ecology 458
Habitats 458
Trees and Shrubs (Foliage-Frequenting and Bark-Frequenting Psocids) 458
Low Vegetation 459
Litter 459
Rock Surfaces 460
Caves 460
Bird and Mammal Nests 460
Domestic Habitats 460
Ecological Distribution 461
Altitudinal Distribution 461
Substrates and Plant "Preferences" 461
Humidity 461
Psocids and Humans 462
References 462
Barley Thrips, Limothrips cerealium (Haliday) 463
Basal 463
Basalare 463
Base Pair (bp) 463
Basem*nt Membrane 463
Basic Reproductive Rate 463
Bat Bugs 463
Bates, Henry Walter 463
References 464
Batesian Mimicry 464
Bates, Marston 464
References 464
Bat Fleas 464
Bat Flies 464
B Chromosomes 464
Beach Flies 464
Beaded Lacewings 465
Beak 465
Beauveria 465
References 468
Beck, Stanley Dwight 468
Reference 468
Bed 468
Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Cimex spp) 469
Morphology 469
Life Cycle 470
Behavior 472
Bed Bug History 473
Geography of the Bed Bug 473
Public Health Importance 474
Control History 476
Current Pest Status 476
Current Management Practices 478
Summary 480
References 481
Bee Bread 481
Bee Flies 481
Bee Lice 481
Bee Louse, Bee Fly, or Braulid, Braula coeca Nitzsch (Diptera: Braulidae) 481
Bee Louse Life Cycle and Behavior 482
Reference 483
Bee Milk 483
Bee Mites 483
Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes) 483
Evolutionary History 484
Diversity and Distribution 484
Development and Life Cycle 484
Nesting 486
Mating Biology 486
Sociality 487
Foraging 489
Pollination 491
Diseases, Parasites and Predators 491
Conservation 492
The Families of Bees 492
Family Colletidae: Yellow-Faced, Masked and Plasterer Bees 492
Family: Andrenidae 493
Family Halictidae: Sweat Bees, Alkali Bee, etc 493
Family Megachilidae: Leaf-Cutting Bees, Mason Bees, Carder Bees and Others 493
Family Apidae: Carpenter Bees, Orchid Bees, Bumble Bees, Stingless Bees, Honey Bees 494
Subfamily Nomadinae: Cuckoo Bees 494
Subfamily Xylocopinae: Carpenter Bees 495
The Corbiculate Apinae: Orchid Bees, Bumble Bees, Stingless Bees, Honey Bees 495
Tribe Euglossini: Orchid Bees 495
Tribe Bombini: Bumble Bees 495
Tribe Meliponini: Stingless Bees 496
Tribe Apini: True Honey Bees 496
References 497
Beesoniidae 498
Beeswax 498
Beet Armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 498
Life History 498
Damage 500
Management 500
References 501
Beetles (Coleoptera) 501
Anatomy 501
Life Cycle 502
Evolution 502
Classification 502
Archostemata 502
Myxophaga 503
Adephaga 503
Polyphaga 503
Series: Staphyliniformia 503
Series: Scarabaeiformia 503
Series: Elateriformia 504
Series: Bostrichiformia 504
Series: Cucujiformia 504
Superfamily: Tenebrionoidea 507
Superfamily: Chrysomeloidea 507
Superfamily: Curculionoidea 507
References 511
Behavior of Insects: Genetic Analysis by Crossing and Selection 511
Crossing Experiments 512
Selection Experiments 512
Behavior Determined by One or a Few Genes 513
Susceptibility to American Foulbrood in the Honeybee 513
House-Entering Behavior in Aedes aegypti 514
Foraging in Drosophila 514
Other Behaviors Influenced by One or a Few Genes 514
Behaviors Determined by Multiple Genes 516
Host Plant Specialization in Drosophila sechellia 516
Other Behaviors Determined by Multiple Genes 516
References 517
Behavior: Molecular Genetic Analyses 517
The Insect Nervous System 517
The Photoperiodic Clock 519
The Period (Per) Gene of Drosophila 519
Song Cycle Behavior in Drosophila 520
Other Effects of Per 520
Learning in Drosophila 521
Functional Genomics of Odor Behavior in Drosophila 523
Learning in Apis mellifera 523
Pheromones in Insects 524
Divergent Functions of Est-6 and Est-5 in Drosophila Species 525
Courtship Behavior in Drosophila 525
Studies of Human Neurodegenerative Diseases and Addictions in Drosophila 527
Molecular Analyses of Complex Behaviors 528
References 528
Behningiidae 528
Beklemishev, Vladimir Nikolayevich 528
References 530
Belidae 530
Bell, William J 530
References 530
Belostomatidae 530
Beneficials 531
Benthic Community 531
Bertha Armyworm, Mamestra configurata Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 531
Importance 531
Biology 531
Management 532
References 533
Berytidae 533
Bequaert, Joseph Charles 533
References 534
Beraeidae 534
BergmannŁs Rule 534
Berlese, Antonio 534
References 535
Berlese Funnel 535
Bernhauer, Max 535
References 535
Berothidae 536
Bertram, Douglas Somerville 536
References 536
Bess Beetles (Coleoptera: Passalidae) 536
References 538
Beta Taxonomy 538
Bet-Hedging 538
Bethylidae 538
Bias 538
Bibionidae 538
Bicaudate 538
Biddies 538
Biennial 539
Bifid 539
Bifurcate 539
Big-Headed Flies 539
Bilateral Symmetry 539
Binomial Nomenclature 539
Binomial Sampling 539
Biphyllidae 539
Bioassay 539
Biocenology (Biocoenology) 539
Biocenosis (Biocoenosis) 540
Biocides 540
Bioclimatic Models in Entomology 540
Temperature Models 540
Distributional Models 542
Multivariate Models 542
Computational Intelligence 544
References 545
Biocontrol 545
Biogeographic Realms 545
Biogeography 545
Insect Biogeography 548
References 551
Bioinformatics 551
Biointensive Pest Management 551
Biological Amplification 551
Biological Clock 551
Biological Clock of the German co*ckroach, Blattella Germanica (L) 552
What Is a Biological Clock? 552
Characters of Circadian Clocks 552
Molecular Clock Mechanisms 553
Ecological Significance 553
Biological Clock of the German co*ckroach 554
Conclusion 556
References 557
Biological Control 557
Biological Control by Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) 557
References 558
Biological Control of Invasive Plants in Latin America 559
Biological Control Activities Against Invasive Plants in Latin America 560
Exportation of Latin American Biological Control Agents 562
Limitations on the Implementation of Biological Control of Invasive Plants in Latin America 562
Potential for Biological Control of Invasive Plants in Latin America 563
Reference 564
Biological Control of Weeds 565
Procedures in a Classical Weed Biological Control Project 566
Importance of Host Specificity 567
Taxa Used in Classical Biological Control of Weeds 568
Classical Biological Control of Weeds in Aquatic Habitats 568
Classical Biological Control of Weeds in Stable and Ephemeral Habitats 569
References 570
Biological Insecticides 570
Biology 570
Bioluminescence 571
Biomagnification 571
Biomass 571
Biome 571
Biopesticide 571
Biorational Pesticides 571
Biosphere 571
Biosystematics 571
Biota 571
Biotechnology 571
Biotic Disease 572
Biotic Potential 572
Biotic Release 572
Biotope 572
Biotype 572
Bipectinate 572
Bird and Rodent Fleas 572
Bird Cherry-Oat Aphid 572
Bird Lice 572
Bird Malaria 572
Birnaviruses 572
References 573
Bíró, Lajos 573
Reference 574
Bisexual 574
Biting Midges, Culicoides spp (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) 574
Classification and Recognition 574
Distribution 576
Ecology and Behavior 577
Mating Behavior 578
Host Finding and Feeding Behavior 578
Biting Behavior: Implications
for Man and Animals 579
Disease Transmission 579
Animal Welfare 580
Human Annoyance 580
Control 581
Chemical Control 581
Habitat Manipulation 581
Repellents 582
Traps 582
Biological Control 582
References 583
Biting Rate 583
Bittacidae 583
Bivoltine 583
Bivouac 583
Blaberidae 583
Black Bean Aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 583
Blackburn, Thomas 584
Reference 584
Black Cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 584
Life History 584
Damage 586
Management 587
References 587
Black Earwigs 588
Black Fig Fly (Diptera: Lonchaeidae) 588
References 589
Black Flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) 589
References 591
Damage 592
Biology 592
Management 593
References 593
Blackheaded Fireworm, Rhopobota naevena (Hübner) (Lepidoptera; Tortricidae) 594
Black Grain Stem Sawfly, Trachelus tabidus (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Cephidae) 594
Blacklegged Tick, Ixodes scapularis Say (Acari: Ixodidae) 594
Blacklight Trap 594
Black Parlatoria Scale, Parlatoria ziziphi (Lucas) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 594
Black Pod of Cacao 594
Black Scale, Saissetia spp (Hemiptera: Coccidae) 594
Black Scavenger Flies 594
Black Turfgrass Ataenius 594
Blackwelder, Richard Elliot 594
Reference 595
Blaisdell, Frank Ellsworth 595
Reference 595
Blasticotomidae 595
Blastobasidae 596
Blastoderm 596
Blatchley, Willis Stanley 596
Reference 596
Blattaria 596
Blattellidae 596
Blattidae 596
Blattodea 597
Blephariceridae 597
Blind Springtails 597
Blister Beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae) 597
Characteristics 597
Life Cycle 597
Natural Enemies 598
Damage Caused by Blister Beetles 598
Beneficial Effects of Blister Beetles 600
Management 600
References 600
Blister Beetle Antennal Twisting Behavior 601
References 601
Blood Gill 601
Blow Flies 602
Blueberry Maggot, Rhagoletis mendax (Curran) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 602
Bluebottle Flies 602
Bluegrass Billbug, Sphenophorus parvulus Gyllenhall (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 602
Blues 602
Bluetongue Disease 602
Insect Vectors 602
The Disease 602
The Viruses 603
Impact and Problems 603
References 604
Boat Flies 604
Bodenheimer, Friedrich (Frederick) Simon 604
Reference 605
Body Lice 605
Bogong Moth, Agrotis diffusa (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 605
Life Cycle and Description 606
Economic Importance 606
References 606
Bohart, Richard M 606
Reference 607
Bohartillidae 607
Boheman, Carl Heinrich 607
References 607
Boisduval, Jean-Baptiste Alphonse Dechauffour De 607
References 608
Bokor, Elemér 608
References 608
Bolitophilidae 608
Boll Rot of Cotton 608
Boll Weevil, Anthonomous grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 608
Description and Life History 609
Host Plants 610
Damage 610
Management 610
References 610
Bombycidae 610
Bombyliidae 610
Bonnet, Charles 610
Reference 611
Book-Lice 611
Boopidae 611
Boreal 611
Bootstrapping 611
Bootstrap Values 611
Boreidae 611
Borgmeier, Thomas 611
Reference 612
Boric Acid 612
References 613
Boridae 613
Bostrichidae 613
Botanical 613
Botanical Insecticides 613
Pyrethrum 614
Rotenone 614
Neem 614
Tobacco 615
Other Botanicals 615
References 616
Bot Flies 616
Bothrideridae 616
Boutonneuse Fever 616
Bovine Babesiosis 616
Bovine Hypodermosis: Phenology in Europe 616
References 618
Bøving, Adam Giede 619
Reference 619
Brachelytry 619
Some Examples Among Chrysomelidae 622
References 624
Brachodidae 625
Brachycentridae 625
Brachypsectridae 625
Brachypteridae 625
Brachypterous 625
Brachytosis 625
Brackish 625
Braconidae 625
Bradynobaenidae 625
Brahmaeidae 625
Brahmin Moths (Lepidoptera: Brahmaeidae) 625
References 626
Brain 626
Brain Hormone 626
Brauer, Friedrich Moritz 626
Reference 626
Braulidae 626
Brentidae 628
Bristle-Legged Moths (Lepidoptera: Schreckensteiniidae) 628
References 628
Bristletails (Archeognatha) 628
Classification 628
Characteristics 628
Biology 629
References 629
Broadcast Application 629
Broad-Headed Bugs 629
Broadleaf Plant 629
Broad Mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acari: Tarsonemidae) 629
Broad-Shouldered Water Treaders 629
Broad-Winged Damselflies 629
Broad-Winged Thrips 629
Bromeliad Fauna 629
Aquatic Animals Using Bromeliad Phytotelmata as Habitat for their Immature Stages 631
Rotifera 631
Annelida 631
Crustacea 631
Acari 631
Odonata 632
Hemiptera 632
Coleoptera 632
Trichoptera 632
Diptera 632
Anura (frogs) 633
Terrestrial Animals Using Bromeliad Terraria as Habitat
for their Immature Stages 635
Terrestrial Animals Using Bromeliads as Occasional Habitat, the Visitors 635
Terrestrial Animals Eating Bromeliads 635
Animals as Dispersers of Bromeliad Seed 637
Animals as Pollinators of Bromeliads 637
Animals as Food for Bromeliads (Carnivory) 637
Conclusion 637
References 638
Bronzed Cutworm, Nephelodes minians Guenée (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 638
Brood 638
Brood Cell 639
Brooding 639
Brood Sac 639
Broun, Thomas 639
References 639
Brown Citrus Aphid, Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 639
References 641
References 644
Brown Lacewings 645
Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) 645
Brown Rot of Fruit 645
Brown Wheat Mite, Petrobia latens (Müller) (Acari: Tetranychidae) 645
Brown-Banded co*ckroach, Supella longipalpa (Fabricius) (Blattodea, Blattellidae) 645
Bruch, Carlos 645
Reference 645
Bruchidae 645
Brues, II, Charles Thomas 645
Reference 646
Brulle, Gaspard Auguste 646
Reference 646
Brunner Von Wattenwyl, Carl 646
References 647
Brush-Footed Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) 647
Distinguishing Characteristics and Relationships 647
Morphology 648
Adult 648
Immature Stages 649
Diversity, Distribution and Biogeography 650
Habitats 650
Ecology 650
Immature Stages 650
Adults 651
Economic Importance 652
Conservation 652
References 653
Brush Organ 653
Bryopsocidae 653
Bt 653
Bubo 653
Bubonic Plague 653
Buccal Cavity 654
Bucculatricidae 654
Budding 654
Buffalo Gnats 654
Buffalograss Chinch Bug, Blissus occiduus Barber (Hemiptera: Blissidae) 654
Buffer Zone 654
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc (Comte De) 655
References 655
Bugs (Hemiptera) 655
Classification 657
Suborder Sternorrhyncha 657
Aphidoidea (Aphidoids) 660
Aleyrodoidea (Whiteflies) 660
Coccoidea (Scale Insects) 661
Psylloidea (Jumping Plant Lice) 663
Suborder Fulgoromorpha 663
Suborder Cicadomorpha 667
Cicadoidea-Cicadas 667
Cercopoidea-Froghoppers 668
Membracoidea-Treehoppers and Leafhoppers 669
Suborder Coleorhyncha-Moss Bugs 670
Suborder Heteroptera 670
Defense 672
Feeding 673
Medically Important Species 674
Development and Cytogenetics 674
References 675
Bulb Mites, Rhizoglyphus (Acari: Acaridae) 675
References 678
Bulldog Ant or Bull Ant, Myrmecia spp (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 678
Bullet Ant, Paraponera clavata (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 679
Bumble Bees 679
Bunchy Top of Papaya 679
Buprestidae 680
Burgess, Albert Franklin 680
Reference 680
Burmeister, Carl Hermann Conrad 680
References 681
Burnet Moth Biology (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae) 681
External Morphology 681
Life History and Habits 681
Cyanogenesis 683
Predators and Parasitoids 685
Economic Importance 685
References 686
Burnet Moths (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae) Burrower Bugs 686
Burrowing Water Beetles 686
Bursa Copulatrix 686
Bursicon 686
Bush Crickets 686
Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) 687
References 690
Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera) 690
Classification 692
Evolution 694
Characteristics 694
Adults 695
Larvae 701
Eggs 704
Pupae 704
Ecology 706
Biodiversity 710
Primitive Moths 717
Micropterigoidea 717
Agathiphagoidea 717
Heterobathmioidea 717
Eriocranioidea 717
Lophocoronoidea 718
Myoglossata 718
Neopseustina 718
Neopseustoidea 718
Exoporia 718
Mnesarchaeoidea 718
Hepialoidea 718
Monotrysian Moths 719
Andesianoidea 719
Nepticuloidea 719
Tischerioidea 719
Palaephatoidea 720
Incurvarioidea 720
Ditrysia 720
Tineina 721
Tineoidea 721
Gelechioidea 722
Copromorphoidea 724
Yponomeutoidea 724
Immoidea 1
Pyraloidea 1
Pterophoroidea 726
Sesiina 726
Sesioidea 726
Zygaenoidea 727
Cossina 728
Cossoidea 728
Castnioidea 729
Tortricoidea 729
Bombycina 730
Calliduloidea 730
Uranioidea 730
Geometroidea 731
Papilionoidea 731
Drepanoidea 733
Bombycoidea 733
Sphingoidea 734
Noctuoidea 735
References 736
Butterfly Counts 736
References 739
Butterfly Gardening 739
The Butterfly Life Cycle 740
The Elements of a Butterfly Garden 740
Adult Nectar Sources 741
Larval Host Plants 742
Other Attractants 742
Water 742
Shelter 743
Keeping the Butterfly Garden Productive 743
Choice of Butterfly Plants 743
List of Plants to Attract Butterflies in Nebraska 744
Annual Flowers 744
Biennials 744
Shrubs 744
Perennial Herbaceous Plants 744
Plants For ­Butterfly Gardening in Florida 745
Trees 745
Shrubs 745
Vines 745
Herbaceous Perennials 745
Some Larval Host Plants and Species Supported: 746
References 747
Buxton, Patrick Alfred 747
Reference 748
Byrrhidae 748
fulltext_3.pdf 749
Cabbage Aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae (L) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1204
References 751
Cabbage Looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 751
Description and Life Cycle 752
Egg 752
Larva 752
Pupa 752
Adult 752
Host Plants 753
Damage 753
Natural Enemies 753
Management 754
References 754
Cabbage Maggot or Cabbage Root Fly, Delia radicum (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) 754
Life History 754
Damage 756
Management 756
References 757
Cabbageworm, Pieris rapae (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) 757
Life Cycle and Description 758
Egg 758
Larva 758
Pupa 758
Adult 758
Damage 759
Host Plants 759
Natural Enemies 759
Management 759
References 760
Cactus Flies 760
Cactus Moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 760
Biology 760
Distribution 763
Control 765
References 767
Caddisflies (Trichoptera) 767
Family: Brachycentridae (Humpless Caddisflies) 769
Family: Glossosomatidae (Saddle-case Caddisflies) 769
Family: Helicopsychidae
(Snail-case Cadisflies) 769
Family: Hydropsychidae
(Net-spinning Caddisflies) 769
Family: Hydroptilidae (Microcaddisflies) 769
Family: Lepidostomatidae (Lepidostomatid Caddisflies) 769
Family: Leptoceridae (Long-horned Caddisflies) 770
Family: Limnephilidae (Northern Caddisflies) 770
Family: Molanidae (Hood-case Caddisflies) 770
Family: Philopotamidae (Finger-net Caddisflies) 770
Family: Phyrganeidae (Large Caddisflies) 770
Family: Polycentropodidae (Trumpet-net Caddisflies) 770
Family: Rhyacophilidae (Primitive Caddisflies) 770
References 770
Cadelle, Tenebroides mauritanicus (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 771
Caeciliidae 771
Caecum (pl., caeca) 771
Caenidae 771
Calamoceratidae 771
Calcaria 771
Calibrate 771
California Red Scale, Aonidiella auranti (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Diaspidae) 771
Calipharixenidae 771
Callidulidae 771
Calliphoridae 771
Callirhipidae 771
Callow 771
Calophllidae 772
Calopsocidae 772
Calopterygidae 772
Calvert, Philip Powell 772
References 772
Calypter (pl., calypteres) 772
Calyptodomous 772
Camel Crickets 772
Cameron, Malcolm 772
References 773
Cambrian Period 773
Camillid Flies 773
Camillidae 773
Campestral 773
Campodeidae 773
Campodeiform Larva 773
Canacidae 773
Candeèze, Ernest Charles Auguste 773
References 774
Canine Babesiosis 774
Canine Piroplasmosis 774
Cannibalism 774
Population Regulation 775
Nutrition 775
Trophic Eggs 777
Sexual Cannibalism 778
Costs of Cannibalism 778
References 778
Canopidae 778
Canopy 779
Canthariasis 779
Cantharidae 779
Cantharidin 779
Canthus 779
Cape Honey Bees, Apis mellifera capensis Escholtz 779
Identification 779
Distribution 779
Reproduction in Cape Bees 780
Biology and Behavior 782
Problems for Beekeepers 782
References 783
Capitate 783
Capniidae 783
Capsid 783
Capsids 783
Capsomere 783
Carabidae 783
Carabid Beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) as Parasitoids 783
References 785
Carabiform Larva 785
Caraboid Larva 785
Carapace 785
Carayonemidae 785
Carbamate Insecticide 786
Carbohydrate 786
Carboniferous Period 786
Carcinogen 786
Carcinophoridae 786
Cardo 786
Careers in Entomology 786
Qualifications and Skills 787
Research 787
Teaching 787
Extension 787
Regulatory 787
Industry 787
Opportunities 787
Educational Institutions 787
Land Grant Universities and Cooperative Extension 787
Other Public and Private Research Universities 788
Undergraduate Colleges and Universities with a Focus on Teaching 788
United States Government 788
US Department of Agriculture 788
Armed Forces 788
Other Agencies 788
Industry 788
Urban Pest Control and Landscape Maintenance 788
Pesticide and Pest Control Device Manufacturers 788
Food, Tobacco, and Drug Companies 789
International Aid Organizations 789
Independent Entomologists 789
Research and Development of Products 789
Lectures, Workshops and Other Courses 790
Writing and Photography 790
Urban Pest Control 790
Consultant and Contract Work 790
Non Profit Organizations 790
Retail or Wholesale Business 790
Caribbean Fruit Fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 790
Carina (pl., Carinae) 790
Carnid Flies 791
Carnidae 791
Carnivore 791
Carnivore Fleas 791
Carnivorous 791
Carnivorous Plants 791
References 792
Carnivory and Symbiosis in the Purple Pitcher Plant 792
Sarracenia Species in North America 793
The Purple Pitcher Plant, Sarracenia purpurea 794
Carnivory in Purple Pitcher Plants 795
Limnological Characteristics in Pitchers of the Purple Pitcher Plant 795
Aquatic Pitcher Inhabitants 796
Wyeomyia smithii (Coquillett) (Diptera: Culicidae): The Pitcher Plant Mosquito 796
Metriocnemus knabi Coquillet (Diptera: Chironomidae): The Pitcher Plant Midge 797
Fletcherimyia fletcheri (Aldrich) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae): The Pitcher Plant Flesh Fly 799
Other Pitcher Plant Inhabitants 800
Pitcher Plants as "Model Ecosystems" 800
Summary 801
References 801
Carob Midge Complex, Asphondylia spp (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Cyprus 801
Damage 804
Mortality Factors 804
References 805
Carotenoids 805
Carpenter Ants, Camponotus spp (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 805
Colony Development 806
Home Range 807
Foraging 807
Trophallaxis 807
Pest Management 809
References 809
Carpenter Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Xylocopinae) 809
References 811
Carpenter, Frank Morton 811
Reference 812
Carpenterworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) 812
References 813
Carposinidae 813
Carrion Beetles (Coleoptera: Silphidae) 813
Distinguishing Characteristics and Relationships 814
Morphology 814
Adult 814
Larvae 814
Classification, Diversity, and Distribution 815
Ecology 818
Conservation 820
Recent Research 821
References 821
Carsidaridae 822
Carter, Herbert James 822
References 822
Carthaeidae 822
Carton 822
Carrier 822
Carrying Capacity 822
Casebearer Moths (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae) 822
References 823
Casey, Thomas Lincoln 823
Reference 823
Cassava Mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) 824
Morphology and Biology 824
Damage 824
Control Options 824
The Solution: Biological Control 826
References 827
Cassava Pests and their Management 828
The Cassava Arthropod Pest Complex and Crop Damage 829
Management of Cassava Arthropod Pests 832
Foliage Feeders 832
Whiteflies 832
Damage 832
Biology and Behavior 833
Control 833
Host Plant Resistance 834
Biological Control 834
Cultural Control 839
Chemical Control 839
Cassava Mites 840
Damage 840
Biology and Behavior 840
Management 840
Host Plant Resistance 841
Biological Control 841
Cassava Mealybugs 843
Damage 843
Biology and Behavior 843
Management 843
Thrips 844
Damage 844
Management 845
Cassava Lacebugs 845
Damage 845
Biology and Behavior 845
Management 846
Cassava Hornworms 846
Damage 846
Biology and Behavior 846
Management 846
Stemborers and Stem Feeders 848
Stemborers 848
Damage 848
Biology and Behavior 849
Management 849
Scale Insects 849
Damage 849
Management 850
Fruit Flies 850
Shoot Flies 850
Damage 850
Management 851
Soil-Borne Pests 851
Cassava Burrower Bug 851
Damage 851
Biology and Behavior 851
Management 852
White Grubs 853
Damage 853
Biology and Behavior 853
Management 853
Cassava Root Mealybugs 854
Secondary Pests 854
Grasshoppers 854
Damage 854
Biology and Behavior 854
Control 855
Gall Midges 855
Leaf-cutter Ants 855
Termites 855
Leafhoppers 855
Future Trends and Considerations 856
References 857
Caste 858
Castes 858
Ants 859
Social Bees and Wasps 859
Termites 860
References 861
Castniidae 861
Caterpillar 861
Cat Flea, Ctenocephalides felis felis Bouché (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) 861
References 865
Cattle Grub, Hypoderma spp (Diptera: Oestridae) 865
Cattle Ticks 865
Cauda 865
Caudal 865
Caudal Filaments 865
Caudal Lamellae 865
Caudate 865
Caudell, Andrew Nelson 866
Reference 866
Cave Adapted Insects 867
References 870
Cave Habitat Colonization 870
References 871
Cayenne Tick, Amblyomma cajennense Fabricius (Ixodida: Ixodidae) 872
cDNA 872
cDNA Library 872
Cecidomyiidae 872
Cecidosidae 872
Cedar Beetles 872
Cell 872
Cell Culture 872
Cell Culture of Insects 872
Physical Conditions 873
Chemical Conditions 873
Characteristics of Cells 874
Practical Applications 874
References 875
Celyphidae 875
Cement 875
Cenchrus (pl., Cenchri) 875
Census 875
Centipedes (Class Chilopoda) 875
Characteristics 875
Classification 876
Ecology 877
Reference 877
Central Body 877
Central Dogma 877
Central Nervous System (CNS) 877
Centromere 878
Cephalothorax 878
Cephidae 878
Cerambycidae 878
Cerambycoid Larva 878
Ceraphronidae 878
Ceratocanthid Scarab Beetles 878
Ceratocanthidae 878
Ceratocombidae 878
Ceratophyllidae 878
Ceratopogonidae 878
Cercoccidae 878
Cercophanidae 879
Cercopidae 879
Cercus (pl., cerci) 879
Cereal Leaf Beetle, Oulema melanopus (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 879
Cereal Stem Moths (Lepidoptera: Ochsenheimeriidae) 879
References 880
Cerebellum 880
Cerebrum 880
Cerococcidae 880
Cerumen 880
Cervical Shield 880
Cervix 880
Cervical Sclerites 880
Cerylonidae 880
Cestodes or Tapeworms 880
References 882
Chaeta (pl, chaetae) 883
Chaeteessidae 883
Chaetotaxy 883
Chaff Scale, Oulema melanopus (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae 883
Chafers 883
Chagas, Carlos Justiniano Ribeiro 883
References 885
Chagas Disease: Biochemistry of the Vector 885
Feeding 885
Protein Metabolism 886
Reproduction 886
Lipid Composition, Metabolism, and Transport 886
The Integument 888
References 888
Chagas Disease or American Trypanosomiasis 888
References 892
Chalaza (pl., chalazae) 892
Chalcididae 893
Chalkbrood 893
Reference 893
Chamaemyiidae 893
Chaoboridae 893
Charipidae 893
Chaudoir, Maximilien Stanislavovitch De 893
References 894
Champion, George Charles 894
Reference 894
Chapman, Reginald Frederick 894
Checkered Beetles 895
Cheek 895
Chela 895
Chelating Agent 895
Chelicera (pl chelicerae) 896
Chelisochidae 896
Chelonariidae 896
Cheloniform Larva 896
Chemical Ecology of Insects 896
References 899
Chemigation 899
Chemokinesis 899
Chemoreceptor 899
Chemotaxis 899
Chestnut Gall Wasp Classical Biological Control in Japan 899
References 901
Chevrolat, Louis Alexandre Auguste 901
Reference 901
Classification 902
Chewing and Sucking Lice (Phthiraptera) 901
Characteristics 902
Biology 904
References 905
Chewing Mouthparts 905
Chiang, Huai C 905
Reference 905
Chigger 905
Chikungunya 905
Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention 906
Epidemiology 907
References 908
Chilli Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) 908
Economic Importance 908
Recognizing S dorsalis Infestations 909
Life History 911
Host Plants 911
Monitoring and Management 911
References 913
Chimaeropsyllidae 913
Chinaberry, Melia azedarach L, A Biopesticidal Tree 914
Classification 914
Geographic Distribution 914
Botanical Characteristics 915
Phytochemical Properties 915
Production of Meliaceous Trees 916
Medicinal and Other Uses 916
Bioactivity of the Melia azedarach Tree Against Insects 917
Bioactivity of Extracts of Melia azedarach 917
Bioactivity of Melia azedarach components against insects 919
Integration With Natural Enemies 920
Potentials in Sustainable Systems 920
References 920
China, William Edward 921
Reference 921
Chinch Bug, Blissus leucopterus (Say) (Hemiptera: Blissidae) 921
Life History 922
Damage 924
Management 924
References 924
Chironomidae 924
Chironomids as a Nuisance and of Medical Importance 924
References 926
Chitin 926
Chitinase 926
Chitinous 926
Chittenden, Frank Hurlbut 926
Reference 927
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 927
Chloroperlidae 927
Chloropidae 927
Chlorosis 927
Choreutidae 927
Cholinesterase 927
Chordotonal Sensory Organs 927
References 929
Choriogenesis 929
Chorion 930
Choristidae 930
Christophers, (Sir) Samuel Rickard 930
Reference 930
Chromatids 930
Chromomere 930
Chromosome Imprinting 930
Chromosome Puffs 930
Chromosomes 930
Chronic 930
Chronic Bee Paralysis 931
Chronic Toxicity 931
Chronotoxicology 931
Historical Perspective 931
Coincidence of Insecticide Susceptibility Rhythms and Other Biological Rhythms 932
Biological Rhythms and Measuring Toxicity Parameters 934
Concluding Remarks 936
References 936
Chrysalis 937
Chrysididae 937
Chrysomelidae 937
Chrysopidae 937
Chrysopolomidae 937
Chyromyid Flies 937
Chyromyidae 937
Cibarium 937
Cicada Parasite Beetles 938
Cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadoidea) 938
Classification 938
Family Tettigarctidae White 938
Family Cicadidae Latreille 938
Chararacteristics 939
Adults 939
Immature Stages 939
Natural History 939
Agricultural Importance 940
References 940
Cicadellidae 941
Cicindelidae 941
Cigarette Beetle 941
Ciidae 941
Cimbicidae 941
Cimicidae 941
Circadian Rhythm 941
Circulative Virus 941
Circumesophageal Connective 941
Citricola Scale, Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (Kuwana) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) 941
Citrus Blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi (Ashby) (Hempitera: Aleyrodidae) 942
Citrus Greening Disease 942
Citrus Leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae)" 942
Citrus Mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hempitera: Pseudococcidae) 942
Citrus Peelminer, Marmara gulosa (Guillen and Davis) (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae) 942
Citrus Pests and their Management 942
History of Citrus 942
Pest Descriptions 943
Acari 943
Eriophyidae 943
Tetranychidae 943
Tenuipalpidae 954
Tarsonemidae 954
Orthoptera 954
Acrididae 954
Tettigoniidae 954
Gryllidae 954
Isoptera 955
Rhinotermitidae 955
Kalotermitidae 955
Hemiptera 955
Coreidae 955
Lygaeidae 955
Pentatomidae 955
Cicadellidae 956
Flatidae 956
Psyllidae 956
Aleyrodidae 956
Aphididae 957
Margarodidae 958
Coccidae 958
Diaspididae 959
Pseudococcidae 961
Thysanoptera 961
Thripidae 961
Coleoptera 962
Diptera 963
Cecidomyiidae 963
Tephritidae 963
Lepidoptera 965
Gracillariidae 965
Tortricidae 966
Megalopygidae 966
Papilionidae 966
Hymenoptera 967
Formicidae 967
Helicidae 967
Citrus Pest Management 967
Fresh or Processing Market 967
Sampling and Thresholds 968
Management Strategies 968
References 968
Citrus Rust Mites (Acari: Eriophyidae) 969
Citrus Snow Scale, Unaspis citri (Comstock) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 969
Citrus Stubborn Disease 969
Citrus Whitefly, Dialeurodes citri (Ashmead) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 969
Cixiidae 969
Cladistic Analysis 969
Clade 969
Cladiopsocidae 969
Cladistics 969
Cladogenic Speciation 969
Cladogram 969
Clambidae 970
Class 970
Classical Biological Control 970
Naturally Occurring Biological Control 971
Classical Biological Control 971
Assumptions of Classical Biological Control 971
Steps in Classical Biological Control 972
Cooperation Between Scientists Aids in Citrus Blackfly Project 974
Classical Biological Control and the Gypsy Moth 981
Continent-Wide Control of the Cassava Mealybug in Africa 982
Conservation of Natural Enemies 983
Effective Natural Enemies 983
Biological Control in Relation to Other Pest Management Approaches 983
Evaluating Classical Biological Control Programs 985
Exclude, Eliminate, or Reduce Natural Enemies 986
Correlation 986
Modeling 986
Risk Assessments 987
References 987
Classification 987
Variations on this System of Classification 989
Characteristics of the Major Groups 989
Clastopteridae 992
Claustral Colony Founding 992
Clavate 992
Clavate Larva 992
Clavola 992
Clavus 992
Claw 992
Clearwing Moths
(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) 992
References 994
Cleptobiosis 994
Cleptoparasite 994
Cleridae 994
Click Beetles 994
Clicking by Caterpillars 994
Reference 995
Climatic Release 995
Climax 995
Cline 995
Cloaca 995
Clone 995
Closed Cell 995
Clothes Moths 995
Clothodidae 995
Clover Mite, Bryobia praetiosa Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) 995
Club Fleas 996
Clubtails 996
Clumped Distribution 996
Clusiid Flies 996
Clusiidae 996
Cluster Analysis 996
Cluster Fly, Pollenia rudis (Fabricius) and P pseudorudis Rognes (Diptera: Calliphoridae) 996
References 999
Clypeofrontal Suture 1000
Clypeus 1000
Coarctate Larva 1000
Coarctate Pupa 1000
Coccidae 1000
Coccinellidae 1000
Coccoidae 1000
Cochineal Insects 1001
co*ckerell, Theodor Dru Alison 1001
Reference 1001
co*ckroaches (Blattodea) 1001
Classification 1002
Characteristics 1002
Habitats and Food 1003
Parental Care 1004
Ecological Importance 1005
Domiciliary co*ckroaches 1005
co*ckroaches as Pests 1006
The Principal co*ckroach Pest Species 1006
Management 1008
Exclusion and Sanitation 1008
Toxicants 1010
co*ckroach Baits 1010
Insect Growth Regulators 1010
Inorganic Dusts 1011
Traps 1011
Biological Control 1011
Oothecal Parasitoids 1012
References 1012
co*ckroaches and Disease 1012
Important Species 1014
Public Health Importance of co*ckroaches 1014
Domestic Nuisance 1014
co*ckroach Bites 1015
Accidental Invasion of the Body 1015
Disease Carriers 1015
Allergies 1015
Focus on Sanitation 1016
References 1016
Cocoon 1016
Coconut Mite, Aceria guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae) 1016
Distribution 1016
Description 1017
Hosts 1017
Biology and Ecology 1017
Damage and Economic Importance 1018
Management 1019
Chemical Control 1019
Mechanical Control 1019
Cultural Control 1020
Host Plant Resistance 1020
Biological Control 1020
References 1020
Cocoon Breaker 1021
Coding Strand 1021
Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 1021
Codon 1021
Coelomomyces 1021
References 1022
Coelopidae 1023
Coenagrionidae 1023
Coevolution 1023
Coffee Bean Rot 1023
Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) 1023
References 1024
Coffee Pests and their Management 1025
Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) 1025
Distribution 1025
Damage and Economic Importance 1025
Description 1032
Biology and Ecology 1035
Natural Enemies 1035
Management 1036
Sampling Infested Berries 1036
Cultural Control 1036
Biological Control 1037
Insect Traps 1037
Chemical Control 1037
Coffee Leaf Miner, Leucoptera coffeella (Guérin-Méneville) (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae) 1038
Distribution 1038
Damage and Economic Importance 1038
Description 1038
Biology and Ecology 1038
Natural Enemies 1039
Management 1039
Sampling Damaged Leaves 1039
Cultural Control 1039
Biological Control 1039
Chemical Control 1040
Root Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseodococcidae) 1040
Distribution 1040
Damage and Economic Importance 1040
Description 1041
Biology and Ecology 1041
Natural Enemies 1042
Management 1042
Sampling 1042
Cultural Control 1042
Biological Control 1042
Plant Resistance to Insects 1042
Chemical Control 1042
Scale Insects, Mealybugs and Related Foliage Pests (Hemiptera) 1043
Distribution 1043
Damage and Economic Importance 1043
Pest Description 1043
Biology and Ecology 1043
Natural Enemies 1044
Management 1044
Sampling 1044
Cultural Control 1044
Biological Control 1044
Chemical Control 1044
Cutworms and Armyworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 1045
Distribution 1045
Damage and Economic Importance 1045
Pest Description 1045
Biology and Ecology 1045
Natural Enemies 1045
Management 1045
Sampling 1045
Cultural Control 1045
Mechanical Control 1045
Biological Control 1046
Chemical Control 1046
Brown Coffee Borer, Xylosandrus morigerus (Blandford) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) 1046
Distribution 1046
Damage and Economic Importance 1046
Description 1046
Biology and Ecology 1046
Natural Enemies 1047
Management 1047
Sampling 1047
Cultural Control 1047
Biological Control 1047
Chemical Control 1047
Stem Borers Plagiohammus spp (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 1047
Distribution 1047
Damage and Economic Importance 1048
Description 1048
Biology and Ecology 1048
Natural Enemies 1048
Management 1048
Sampling 1048
Cultural Control 1048
Biological Control 1048
Chemical Control 1048
White Grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 1049
Distribution 1049
Damage and Economic Importance 1049
Pest Description 1049
Biology and Ecology 1049
Natural Enemies 1050
Management 1050
Sampling 1050
Cultural Control 1050
Physical-Mechanical Control 1050
Biological Control 1050
Chemical Control 1050
Black Citrus Aphid, Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer De Fonscolombe) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1050
Distribution 1050
Damage and Economic Importance 1050
Description 1051
Biology and Ecology 1051
Natural Enemies 1051
Management 1051
Sampling 1051
Cultural Control 1051
Biological Control 1051
Chemical Control 1051
Leaf-Cutting Ants, Atta and Acromyrmex (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 1052
Distribution 1052
Damage and Economic Importance 1052
Pest Description 1052
Biology and Ecology 1052
Natural Enemies 1053
Management 1053
Sampling 1053
Cultural Control 1053
Biological Control 1053
Chemical Control 1053
Long-Horned Grasshoppers or Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) 1054
Distribution 1054
Damage and Economic Importance 1054
Description 1054
Biology and Ecology 1054
Natural Enemies 1055
Management 1055
Sampling 1055
Cultural Control 1055
Mechanical Control 1055
Biological Control 1055
Chemical Control 1055
Bush Crickets, Paroecanthus spp (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) 1055
Distribution 1055
Damage and Economic Importance 1055
Description 1056
Biology and Ecology 1056
Natural Enemies 1056
Management 1056
Sampling 1056
Cultural Control 1056
Biological Control 1056
Chemical Control 1056
Leaf-Eating Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) 1057
Distribution 1057
Damage and Economic Importance 1057
Description 1057
Biology and Ecology 1057
Natural Enemies 1057
Management 1057
Sampling 1057
Mechanical Control 1057
Biological Control 1057
Chemical Control 1058
Leaf Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1058
Distribution 1058
Damage and Economic Importance 1058
Description 1058
Biology and Ecology 1058
Natural Enemies 1058
Management 1058
Sampling 1058
Cultural Control 1058
Biological Control 1058
Chemical Control 1059
Coffee Bean Weevil, Araecerus fasciculatus (De Geer) (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) 1059
Distribution 1059
Damage and Economic Importance 1059
Description 1059
Biology and Ecology 1059
Natural enemies 1059
Management 1059
Sampling 1059
Cultural Control 1059
Bilogical Control 1060
Chemical Control 1060
Spider Mites (Acari) 1060
Distribution 1060
Damage and Economic Importance 1060
Description 1060
Biology and Ecology 1060
Natural Enemies 1061
Management 1061
Sampling 1061
Cultural Control 1061
Biological Control 1061
Chemical Control 1061
References 1061
Cold Tolerance in Insects 1062
Classification of Cold Tolerance 1062
Mechanisms of Cold Tolerance 1063
References 1064
Cole Crops 1064
Collectors 1064
Coleophoridae 1064
Coleoptera 1064
Collecting and Preserving Insects 1064
Key elements to successful insect collecting 1064
Collecting Techniques 1065
Living Insects 1065
Killing Methods 1065
Recording 1065
Preserving Insects 1065
Vials 1066
Mounting Techniques 1066
Pinning 1066
Storage in Transparent Envelopes 1066
Pointing 1067
Card Mounts 1068
Adhesives 1069
Card Mounts, Card Points, and Labels 1069
Genitalia 1069
Slides 1069
Soft-Bodied Specimens 1069
Labeling Specimens 1070
Information on Labels 1070
Pinning Blocks 1070
Storing Collections 1070
Storage Containers and Cabinets 1071
Supply Houses 1071
Permits 1071
References 1071
Collembola 1072
Colleterial Glands 1072
Colletidae 1072
Collophore 1072
Colobathristidae 1072
Coloburiscidae 1072
Colonization 1072
Colony 1072
Colony Fission 1072
Colony Odor 1072
Colorado Potato Beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 1072
References 1076
Colorado Tick Fever 1077
Columnar Cells 1077
Colydiidae 1077
Comb 1077
Comb-Clawed Beetles 1077
Commensalism 1077
Common Fleas 1077
Common Name 1077
Common Oviduct 1077
Common Sawflies 1077
Common Scorpionflies 1077
Common Skimmers 1077
Common Stoneflies 1077
Common Thrips 1078
Common (Vernacular) Names of Insects 1078
Vernacular Names Derived from Scientific Names 1079
"Official" Common Names 1080
Reference 1081
Common Walkingsticks 1081
Communal Behavior 1081
Community 1081
Companion Planting 1081
Competitive Displacement 1081
Complex Metamorphosis 1081
Compliance Procedure (for a Consignment) 1081
Compound Eyes 1081
Compsocidae 1082
Compound Nest 1082
Comstock, John Henry 1082
Reference 1083
Concealer Moths (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) 1083
References 1083
Conchaspididae 1084
Conditional Lethal 1084
Conditioned Stimulus 1084
Condyle 1084
Confused Flour Beetle, Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 1084
Congeners 1084
Congo Floor Maggot, Auchmeromyia senegalensis (luteola) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) 1084
Congener 1084
Conidiophore 1084
Conidium 1084
Conifer Bark Beetles 1085
Conifer Sawflies 1085
Coniopterygidae 1085
Conjunctiva 1085
Connexivum 1085
Conopidae 1085
Conservation Biological Control 1085
Practices Detrimental to Natural Enemies 1086
Practices that Enhance Natural Enemy Effectiveness 1086
References 1087
Conservation of Ground Beetles in Annual Crops 1087
References 1089
Conservation of Insects 1089
Cites 1090
The Importance of Subspecies 1090
Butterflies as an Index Group in Conservation 1091
Case Studies of Four Endangered Swallowtail Butterflies (Papilionidae) from Different World Regions 1092
Ornithoptera alexandrae, New Guinea, and other birdwing butterflies 1092
Homerus swallowtail, Papilio homerus, Jamaica 1094
Parnassius apollo, Europe 1096
Schaus' Swallowtail, Heraclides aristodemus ponceanus Schaus, Florida 1096
References 1099
Conspecific 1099
Construction Behavior of Insects 1099
Types of Structure and Nest Architecture 1099
Building Materials 1104
Function and Evolution of Insect Structures 1105
Regulation of Construction Behavior 1106
Conclusions 1109
References 1109
Consumption Efficiency 1109
Contact Poison 1109
Contagious Disease 1109
Containment 1109
Contamination 1109
Continental Drift 1110
Controlled Atmosphere Technologies for Insect Control 1110
Low Oxygen 1112
High Carbon Dioxide 1112
Modified Atmosphere Packaging 1112
Temperature Combinations 1113
Ozone, Other Chemicals and Processes 1113
Machinery 1114
Approved Treatments 1114
References 1114
Convergent Evolution 1115
Cooloola Monsters 1115
Cooloolidae 1116
Cooties 1116
Coppers 1116
Copromorphidae 1116
Coprophagous 1116
Coprophagy 1116
Coptopsyllidae 1116
Copularium 1116
Coquillett, Daniel William 1116
Reference 1117
Coral Treaders 1117
Corazonin 1117
Role of Corazonin in the Control of Body-Color Polymorphism in Locusts 1117
Effect of Corazonin on Body Shape 1119
Effect of Corazonin on the Formation of Antennal Sensilla 1119
Corazonins in Other Insects 1120
References 1121
Corbicula 1122
Cordulegastridae 1122
Corduliidae 1122
Coreidae 1122
Stenocephalidae 1124
Coreidae 1124
Alydidae 1125
Rhopalidae 1125
Hyocephalidae 1126
References 1126
Coremata 1126
Corethrellidae 1127
Corioxenidae 1127
Corium 1127
Corixidae 1127
Corn Delphacid, Peregrinus maidis (Ashmead) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) 1127
References 1129
Cornea 1129
Corn Earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 1129
Life Cycle and Description 1129
Egg 1129
Larva 1130
Pupa 1130
Adult 1130
Host Plants 1131
Damage 1131
Natural Enemies 1132
Management 1132
Sampling 1132
Insecticides 1133
Biological Control 1133
Host Plant Resistance 1133
References 1133
Cornicles 1134
Corn Leaf Aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1134
Life History 1134
Damage 1135
Management 1136
References 1136
Corn Leafhopper, Dalbulus maidis (Delong and Wolcott) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 1136
References 1138
Corn Stunt 1138
Corpora Pedunculata 1138
Corpus Allatum (pl., Corpora Allata) 1138
Corpus Cardiacum (pl., Corpus Cardiaca) 1138
Corpus Pendunculatum 1138
Corydalidae 1138
Corylophidae 1138
Cosmetic Damage 1139
Cosmet Moths (Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae) 1139
References 1140
Cosmopolitan 1140
Cossidae 1140
Costa 1140
Costal Break 1140
Costal Cell 1140
Costal Margin 1140
Costs and Benefits of Insects 1140
The Negative Effects of Insects on Crops and Livestock 1141
Yield Loss 1141
Nonindigenous (Invasive) Pests 1143
Pesticides 1143
The Negative Effects of Insects on Wildlife 1144
Biting and Stinging 1144
Disease Transmission 1144
Pesticides 1145
The Negative Effects of Biting Pests and Vectors of Human Disease 1146
The Negative Effects of Urban (Structural, Household, and Landscape) Pests 1147
The Benefits of Pollination and Honey Production 1148
Pollination 1148
Honey 1151
The Benefits of Animal Dung Decomposition 1151
The Benefits of Insects for Recreation 1152
The Benefits of Biological Control by Insects 1153
Other Benefits of Insects 1153
Silk production (sericulture) 1153
Shellac 1154
Dyes 1155
Human and Animal Food 1156
Medical Treatment 1156
References 1157
Cost-Benefit Analysis 1157
Cotton or Melon Aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1157
Cotton Leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) 1157
Life History 1158
Damage 1158
Management 1158
References 1159
Cotton Stainers 1159
Cotton Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 1159
Cottony Cushion Scale, Iceryi purchasi Maskell (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) 1159
Cover, Border and Trap Crops for Pest and Disease Management 1159
The Role of Mulches for Suppression of Pest Populations 1160
Organic mulches 1160
Synthetic Mulches 1162
The Role of Cover Crops in Suppressing Pest Populations 1162
The Role of Barrier or Border Crops in Suppressing Pest Populations 1162
The Role of Trap Crops in Suppressing Pest Populations 1163
Economics of Sustainable Agriculture 1163
References 1163
Cover Crops 1164
Coxa 1164
Crab Lice, Phthirus pubis (Linnaeus) (Phthiraptera: Pthiridae) 1164
Crabronidae 1164
Cranberry Fruitworm, Acrobasis vaccinii Riley (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1165
Cranberry Girdler, Chrysoteuchia topiaria (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1165
Cranberry Tipworm, Dasineura oxycoccana (Johnson) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) 1165
Crane Flies (Diptera: Tipulidae and Others) 1165
Ecology 1166
Geological Record 1166
Taxonomic Divisions 1167
References 1167
Cranium 1167
Crapemyrtle Aphid, Sarucallis kahawaluokalani (Kirkaldy) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1167
References 1169
Craw, Alexander 1169
Reference 1169
Crawler 1169
Crawling Water Beetles 1170
Creeping Myiasis 1170
Creeping Water Bugs 1170
Cremaster 1170
Crenulate 1170
Crenulate Moths (Lepidoptera: Epiplemidae) 1171
References 1171
Crepuscular 1171
Cresson, Ezra Townsend 1171
Reference 1172
Cretaceous Period 1172
Cribellum 1172
Cribrate 1172
Crickets 1172
Criddle, Norman 1172
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever 1172
Cristate 1173
Critical Period 1173
Crochets 1173
Crop Diversity and Pest Management 1173
References 1175
Crop 1175
Crop Loss Assessment 1175
Crop Residue 1175
Crossing Over 1175
Cross-Resistance 1175
Cross-Striped Cabbageworm, Evergestris rimosalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1176
Cross Vein 1176
Crotch, George Robert 1176
Reference 1176
Crowson, Roy Albert 1176
Reference 1176
Crucifer 1176
Crucifer Flea Beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae (Goeze) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 1177
Crucifer Pests and their Management 1177
Leaf or Foliage Feeders: Caterpillars and Flea Beetles 1177
The Imported Cabbageworm, Pieris rapae (L) (Pieridae) 1177
The Cabbage Looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Noctuidae) 1178
Diamondback Moth, Plutella xylostella (L) (Plutellidae) 1178
Cross-striped Cabbageworm, Evergestis rimosalis (Guenée) (Pyralidae) 1180
Cabbage Webworm, Hellula rogatalis (Hulst) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1180
Occasional Caterpillar Pests 1182
Flea Beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 1182
Sap Feeders: Harlequin Bugs, Aphids 1183
Harlequin Bug, Murgantia histrionica (Hahn) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) 1183
Cabbage Aphids, Brevicoryne brassicae (L) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1183
Root Feeder: Cabbage Maggot 1184
Cabbage Maggot, Delia radicum (L) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) 1184
References 1186
Crypsis 1186
References 1192
Cryptobiosis 1192
References 1192
Cryptoceridae 1193
Cryptochetid Flies 1193
Cryptochetidae 1193
Cryptophagidae 1193
Cryptorhamphidae 1193
Crystalliferous 1193
Csiki, Ernõ; (Ernst Dietl) 1193
References 1194
Ctenidium (pl. ctenidia) 1194
Ctenoplectidae 1194
Ctenostylidae 1194
Cubitus 1194
Cuckoo Bees 1194
Cuckoo Wasps 1194
Cucujidae 1194
Cucurbit 1194
Cucurbit Yellow Vine Disease 1194
Culicidae 1194
Culicifuge 1195
Culicinomyces clavisporus 1195
References 1195
Cultivar 1195
Cultivation 1195
Cultural Control of Insect Pests 1196
References 1197
Cultural Entomology 1197
Reference 1197
Culture of Natural Enemies on Factitious Foods and Artificial Diets 1197
References 1200
Cuneus 1200
Cupedidae 1200
Curculionidae 1200
Curculionoid Larva 1200
Curran, Charles Howard 1200
Reference 1201
Cursorial 1201
Curtis, John 1201
Reference 1201
Curtonotid Flies 1201
Curtonotidae 1202
Cushman, Robert Asa 1202
Reference 1202
Cuticular Lipids 1202
Cuticle 1202
Cuticulin 1202
Cutworm 1202
Cutworm Moths 1202
Cuvier, (Baron) Georges Léopold Chretien Frédéric Dagobert 1202
Reference 1203
Cyclical Polymorphism 1203
Cyclidiidae 1203
Cycloalexy 1203
References 1204
Cyclo-Developmental Transmission 1204
Cyclo-Propagative Transmission 1206
Cyclorrhapha 1206
Cyclotornidae 1206
Cydnidae 1206
Cylindrical Bark Beetles 1206
Cymidae 1206
Cyphoderidae 1206
Cypselosomatid Flies 1206
Cypselosomatidae 1206
Cyrtocoridae 1206
Cystocyte 1206
Cytochrome 1206
Cytoplasm 1207
Cytoplasmic Incompatibility 1207
Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Virus 1207
Cytosol 1207
fulltext_4.pdf 1209
Dactyl 1209
Dactylopiidae 1209
Daddy Long-Legs 1209
Dahlbom, Anders Gustav 1209
Reference 1209
Dalceridae 1209
Dampwood Termites 1210
Damsel Bugs 1210
Damselflies 1210
Distinguishing Characters 1210
Morphology ƒ Adults 1211
Morphology ƒ Immatures 1213
Ecology 1213
Mating Behavior 1214
Diversity, Evolution and Distribution 1214
References 1215
Dark Mealworm, Tenebrio obscurus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 1215
Darkling Beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 1215
Adults 1216
Immature Stages 1216
Habitats 1216
Food 1217
References 1217
Dark-Winged Fungus Gnats 1217
Darlington, Jr., Philip J 1217
References 1218
Darners 1218
Darwin, Charles 1218
References 1218
Darwinism 1218
Dascillidae 1219
Geographic Distribution 1219
Symptoms and Economic Importance 1219
Biology 1219
Control 1219
References 1219
Davis, William Thompson 1220
Reference 1220
Day-Degree 1220
DDT 1220
Dead-End Hosts 1221
Dead Log Bark Beetles 1221
Dealate 1221
Dealation 1221
Death Feigning 1221
Death-Watch Beetles 1221
Debach, Pau l Hevener 1221
Reference 1222
Decomposer Insects 1222
Decomposers of Plant Remains 1224
The Entomofauna of Excrement and Corpses 1224
Decomposers of Corpses 1226
Forensic Entomology 1228
Decomposers of Excrement 1229
Beneficial Actions of Decomposer Insects in Ecosystems 1232
References 1232
Decumbent 1233
Decurved 1233
Deer Flies 1233
Deer Fly Fever 1233
Deer Keds 1233
Deer Midges 1233
Deficiency Disease 1233
Deflection Marks 1233
References 1235
Defoliant 1235
Defoliation 1235
DeGeer, Carl (Carolus, Karl, Charles) 1235
Reference 1236
Degree-Day 1236
Delimiting Survey 1236
Dejean, Pierre François Marie Auguste 1236
Reference 1237
Delphacidae 1237
Delusory Parasitosis 1237
Deme 1237
Deimatic Behavior 1237
Reference 1238
Denaturation 1238
Dendrites 1238
Dendrogram 1238
Dengue 1239
The Pathogen and Disease 1239
Vectors 1239
Evolution, History, and Spread 1240
Maintenance and Transmission 1241
Risk Factors for Dengue 1241
Economic Impact and Prevention 1242
References 1242
Density 1242
Density Dependence 1242
Density Independence 1242
Dentate 1242
Dentition 1242
Denver Billbug, Sphenophorus cicastriatus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1242
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 1242
Deposit 1242
Depressed 1243
Derbidae 1243
Dermal 1243
Dermaptera 1243
Dermatitis Linearis 1243
References 1244
Dermestid Beetles 1244
Dermestidae 1245
Derodontidae 1245
Desensitization 1245
Desert Locust, Schistocerca gregaria Forskål (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Plagues 1245
References 1250
Desert Longhorned Grasshoppers 1250
Detection Survey 1250
Deterministic Model 1250
Deterrent 1250
Dethier, Vincent Gaston 1250
Reference 1251
Detoxification Mechanisms in Insects 1251
Phase I Reactions 1251
Oxidation 1251
Epoxidation 1252
Hydroxylation 1252
N-Dealkylation 1252
O-Dealkylation 1253
Desulfuration 1253
Sulfoxidation 1253
Reduction 1254
Hydrolysis 1255
Phase II Reactions 1256
Glucose Conjugation 1257
Sulfate Conjugation 1257
Phosphate Conjugation 1257
Amino Acid Conjugation 1258
Glutathione Conjugation 1258
Induction of Detoxification Enzymes 1259
Enzyme Induction as Detoxification Mechanism 1260
Metabolism of Allelochemicals by Detoxification Enzymes 1260
Role of Detoxification Enzymes in Insecticide Resistance 1264
References 1265
Detritivore 1265
Detritivory 1265
Deutocerebrum 1265
Deuterophlebiidae 1265
Deutonymph 1265
Developmental Threshold 1265
Diadocidiidae 1265
Diagnosis 1265
Diamondback Moth, Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) 1266
Life History 1266
Damage 1268
Management 1268
References 1269
Diamondback Moths (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) 1270
References 1270
Diamphipnoidae 1270
Diapause 1270
A Photoperiodically Controlled Phenomenon 1271
A Temperature-Dependent Syndrome 1272
Influence of Food 1273
Genetic Control of Diapause 1273
Hormonal Aspects of Diapause 1273
References 1274
Diapause Hormone 1274
Diaprepes Root Weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1274
Host Plants 1275
Natural Enemies 1275
Life Cycle and Description 1275
Eggs 1276
Larva 1276
Pupa 1276
Adults 1276
Damage 1277
Management 1277
Sampling 1277
Insecticides 1277
Cultural Practices 1277
Host Plant Resistance 1278
Biological Control 1278
References 1278
Diaprepes Weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1278
Diapriidae 1278
Diaspididae 1278
Diastatidae 1279
Diastatid Flies 1279
Diatomaceous Earth 1279
Why is Diatomaceous Earth Insecticidal? 1279
Environmental Interactions 1279
Variability Among Diatomaceous Earths 1280
What is Affected by Diatomaceous Earth? 1280
Safety 1280
References 1281
Dichotomous Keys 1281
Dicondylic Articulation or Joint 1281
Dicot 1281
Dicteriadidae 1281
Dictyopharidae 1281
Dictyoptera 1281
Differential Grasshopper, Melanoplus differentialis (Thomas) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 1282
Life History 1282
Damage 1283
Management 1284
References 1285
Digger Bees 1285
Digitate 1285
Dilaridae 1285
Dimboa 1285
Dimorphic 1285
Dinidoridae 1285
Diopsidae 1285
Dioptidae 1285
Diphyllostomatid Beetles 1286
Diphyllostomatidae 1286
Diploid 1286
Diplurans (Diplura) 1286
Classification 1286
Characteristics 1286
Biology 1287
References 1287
Diprionidae 1287
Dipsocoridae 1287
Diptera 1287
Dipteromimidae 1287
Direct Flight Muscles 1288
Directive Coloration 1288
Direct Pests 1288
Dirofilariasis 1288
References 1293
Discal Cell 1293
Discrete Generations 1293
Disease 1293
Diseases of Grasshoppers and Locusts 1293
Bacteria 1293
Fungi 1294
Beauveria bassiana 1294
Entomophaga grylli Complex 1294
Metarhizium anisopliae var acridum 1295
Protozoa 1295
Viruses 1296
Grasshopper Thermal Ecology 1296
References 1297
Disjunct Populations 1297
Disk 1297
Dispersal 1297
Dispersion 1297
Disruptive Coloration 1297
Distal 1297
Distiproboscis 1297
Ditomyiidae 1298
Diuretic Hormones 1298
Diurnal 1298
Diverticulum 1298
Dixid Midges 1298
Dixidae 1298
DNA 1298
DNA Probe 1298
DNAse 1298
Dobsonflies 1298
Dobzhansky, Theodosius Grigorievich 1298
Reference 1299
Dockage 1299
Dog Heartworm 1299
Dolabellopsocidae 1299
Dolichopodidae 1299
Dominance Hierarchy 1299
Dominant 1299
Dominant Species 1299
Donisthorpe, Horace St. John Kelly 1299
Reference 1300
Dormant 1300
Dormant Oil 1300
Dorsal 1300
Dorsal Diaphragm 1300
Dorsal Longitudinal Muscles 1300
Dorsal Vessel: Heart and Aorta 1300
References 1302
Dorsoventral Muscles 1302
Dorsum 1302
Double-Eye Moths (Lepidoptera: Amphitheridae) 1302
References 1302
Double Sampling 1303
References 1304
Douglasiidae 1305
Douglas, John William 1305
Reference 1305
Douglas Moths (Lepidoptera: Douglasiidae) 1305
References 1305
Dragonflies 1305
Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata) 1306
Family Calopterygidae
(Broad-winged Damselflies) 1307
Family Lestidae (Spreadwinged Damselflies) 1308
Family Coenagrionidae (Narrowwinged or Pond Damselflies) 1308
Family Aeshnidae (Darner Dragonflies) 1309
Family Gomphidae (Clubtail Dragonflies) 1309
Family Libellulidae (Skimmer Dragonflies) 1309
References 1309
Drake, Carl John 1310
Reference 1310
Drench Treatment 1310
Drepanidae 1310
Driver Ants (Dorylus subgenus Anomma) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 1310
Taxonomy and Phylogeny 1311
Morphology 1311
Workers 1311
Males 1313
Queens 1313
Behavior 1313
Ecology 1314
Habitat and Distribution 1315
Economic Importance 1315
References 1315
Droplet Spermatophore 1315
Drosophilidae 1315
Drumming Communication and Intersexual Searching Behavior of Stoneflies (Plecoptera) 1316
References 1318
Dry Bark Beetles 1318
Dry-Fungus Beetles 1318
Dryinidae 1318
Dryopidae 1318
Drywood Termites 1318
dsDNA 1318
Dubas Bug (Old World Date Bug), Ommatissus lybicus Bergerin (Tropiduchidae: Hemiptera) 1318
Description 1319
Symptoms and Economical Importance 1319
Biology 1319
Control 1319
References 1319
Dudgeon Carpenterworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Dudgeoneidae) 1320
References 1320
Dudgeoneidae 1320
Dudich, Endre 1320
References 1321
Dufour, Léon Jean Marie 1321
References 1321
Dufour's Gland 1321
Dulosis 1321
Dung Beetles 1321
Dung Flies 1321
Dunnage 1321
Duponchel, Philogène
August-Joseph 1322
References 1322
Dust 1322
Duster 1322
Dustywings 1322
Dutch Elm Disease 1322
Dyar, Harrison Grey 1322
References 1323
Dyar's Rule 1323
Dytiscidae 1323
fulltext_5.pdf 1325
Ear Tag 1325
Earth-Boring Dung Beetles 1325
Earwigflies (Mecoptera: Meropeidae) 1325
References 1327
Earwigs (Dermaptera) 1328
Classification 1328
Characteristics 1328
Biology 1329
References 1329
East Coast Fever 1329
Eastern Equine Encephalitis 1329
Virus 1329
Mosquito Vectors 1329
Bird Hosts 1330
Transmission Cycle 1330
Disease in Humans 1330
Disease in Horses 1330
Disease in Birds 1330
Detection/Diagnosis 1331
Epidemics and Epizootics 1331
Future Outlook 1331
References 1332
Eastern Lubber Grasshopper, Romalea microptera (Beauvois) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 1332
Life History 1332
Damage 1334
Management 1334
References 1334
Ecdysial Line 1334
Ecdysis 1335
Ecdysone 1335
Ecdysone Agonists, A Novel Group of Insect Growth Regulators 1335
Chemistry and Physical Properties 1335
Insecticidal Mode of Action 1336
Insecticidal Properties and Efficacy Against Target Pests 1336
Safety to Non-target Organisms 1337
References 1337
Ecdysozoa 1338
Reference 1338
Ecdysteroids 1338
Origin and Site of Synthesis 1339
The Regulation of Ecdysteroid Synthesis 1340
Ecdysteroids Metabolism 1341
Activation 1341
Inactivation Mechanism 1341
Storage Mechanisms 1341
Mode of Action of Ecdysteroids: Molecular Aspects 1341
Involvement of Ecdysteroids in the Control of Reproduction and Embryogenesis 1343
Ecdysteroids in Non-arthropods Metazoans 1343
Phytoecdysteroids 1344
References 1344
Echinophthiriidae 1345
Eclosion 1345
Eclosion Hormone 1345
Ecnomidae 1345
Ecological Community 1345
Ecological hom*ologues 1345
Ecological Management 1345
Ecological Niche 1345
Ecological Succession 1345
Ecology 1345
Economic Injury Level (EIL) 1346
Economic Damage 1346
Economic Injury Level (EIL) and Economic Threshold (ET) Concepts in Pest Management 1346
References 1350
Economic Threshold (ET) 1350
Ecosystem 1350
Ecotone 1351
Ectadene (pl ectadenia) 1351
Ectophagous 1351
Ectopsocidae 1351
Ecotype 1351
Ectognathous 1351
Ectotherm 1351
Ectoparasite 1351
Edaphic 1351
Edwards, Henry 1351
Reference 1352
Edwards, William Henry 1352
Reference 1352
Eelworm 1352
Efficiency 1352
Egg 1352
Egg Burster 1352
Egg Case 1352
Egg Pod 1352
Eggs of Insects 1353
The Egg Shell 1353
Defenses of Eggs 1354
Size of Eggs 1356
Number of Eggs 1357
Oviposition 1359
Distribution of Eggs 1359
References 1360
Ehrlichiosis 1360
Eickwort, George C 1360
Reference 1360
ejacul*tory Duct 1360
Elachistidae 1360
Elasmidae 1360
Elateridae 1361
Elateriform Larva 1361
Elaters 1361
Elbowed Antennae 1361
Electrophoresis 1361
Elenchidae 1361
Elephantiasis 1361
Elfins 1361
Elipsocidae 1361
Elmidae 1361
Elm Leaf Beetle, Xanthogaleruca (=Pyrrhalta) luteola (Müller) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 1361
References 1364
Elongate-Bodied Springtails 1364
Elytron (pl elytra) 1364
Elytron/Femur Ratio (E/F) 1364
Emarginate 1365
Embiidae 1365
Embiidina 1365
Embolium 1365
Embioptera 1365
Embryogenesis 1365
References 1370
Embolemidae 1370
Embonychidae 1371
Emergence 1371
Emerson, Alfred Edwards 1371
Reference 1371
EmeryŁs Rule 1371
Emigration 1371
Emperor Moths (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) 1371
References 1373
Empididae 1373
Empusidae 1373
Empodium 1373
Emulsifier 1373
Emulsion 1373
Emulsifiable Concentrate 1373
Encapsulated Pesticide 1373
Encapsulation 1373
Encephalitis 1373
Encyrtidae 1374
Endangered Area 1374
Endangered Species 1374
Endemic 1374
Endemism 1374
Enderleinellidae 1374
Endocrine Gland 1374
Endocrine Regulation of Insect Reproduction 1379
Sites Where Hormones are Released in insects 1379
Endocrine Regulation of Male Reproduction 1379
Endocrine Regulation of Female Reproduction 1381
References 1382
Endogenous 1383
Endogenous Rhythm 1383
Endomychidae 1383
Endoparasite 1383
Endophagous 1383
Endophallus 1383
Endophytic Fungi and Grass-Feeding Insects 1383
References 1385
Endocuticle 1386
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 1386
Endoproteases 1386
Endopterygota 1386
Endoskeleton 1386
Endotherm 1386
Endotoxins 1387
Endro di, Sebo (Sebastian Endro di) 1387
References 1387
Endro dy-Younga, Sebastian (Sebestyén Endro dy-Younga, Sebestyén Endro dy) 1387
References 1388
Endromidae 1388
Enemy Impact Hypothesis 1388
English Grain Aphid, Sitobion avenae (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1388
Enhanced Biodegradation of Soil-Applied Pesticides 1389
Enhanced Biodegradation 1389
An Example 1390
Implications 1392
References 1392
Enicocephalidae 1392
Ensiform 1392
Ensign Coccids 1392
Ensign Wasps 1392
Enteric 1392
Entognatha 1392
Entognathous 1393
Entomobryidae 1393
Entomodeltiology 1393
Entomogenous 1396
Entomoparasitic 1396
Entomopathogenic 1396
Entomopathogenic Fungi and their Host Cuticle 1397
Fungal Enzymes Involved in Cuticle Degradation 1397
Mycoinsecticide Improvement 1399
References 1400
Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Insect Management 1400
Biology 1400
Commerical Develoment and Efficacy 1401
References 1404
Entomophagous 1404
Entomophagy 1405
Entomophagy: Human Consumption of Insects 1405
References 1407
Entomophilic 1407
Entomophobia 1408
Entomophthorales 1408
References 1409
Entomopoxvirus 1409
References 1410
Entotrophi 1411
Enumeration Sampling 1411
Envelope 1411
Envenomization 1411
Environmental Sex Determination 1411
Environmental Influences on Behavioral Development in Insects 1411
Background 1411
Courtship Behavior in Drosophila 1412
Effects of hom*osexual Courtship During the First Hours of Adult Life on the Male 1413
Effects of Visual Experience During the First Days of Adult Life 1414
Ecological Implications of Mate Choice 1414
Developmental Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Lead 1415
Conclusions 1415
References 1417
Enzootic Disease 1417
Enzyme 1417
Eomeropidae 1417
Eosentomidae 1417
Epermeniidae 1417
Ephemerellidae 1417
Ephemeridae 1417
Ephemeroptera 1417
Ephemerythidae 1417
Ephydridae 1418
Epicopeiidae 1418
Epicranial Suture 1418
Epicranium 1418
Epicuticle 1418
Epicuticular Filaments 1418
Epidemic 1418
Epidemic Hemorrhagic Fever 1418
Epidemic Relapsing Fever 1419
Epidemic Typhus 1419
Epidemiology 1419
Epidermis 1419
Epigaeic 1419
Epigynum 1419
Epimeron 1419
Epimorphosis 1420
Epipharynx 1420
Epiphysis 1420
Epiplemidae 1420
Epipleura (pl epipleurae) 1420
Epiproct 1420
Epipsocidae 1420
Epipyropidae 1420
Episternum (pl episterna) 1420
Epistoma 1420
Epizootic 1420
Epizootic Bovine Abortion 1420
Epizootiology 1420
Equilibrium Position (EP) 1420
Eradication 1421
Ergatogyne 1421
Eremiaphilidae 1421
Ergatoid Reproductive 1421
Ergot of Cereals 1421
Erichson, Wilhelm Ferdinand 1421
Reference 1421
Eriococcidae 1422
Eriocottidae 1422
Eriocraniidae 1422
Eri Silkworm, philosamia ricini (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) 1422
References 1424
Ermine Moths (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) 1424
References 1425
Erotylidae 1425
Eruciform Larva 1425
Esaki, Teiso 1425
Reference 1426
Esophagus 1426
Essential Amino Acids 1426
Essential Oils 1426
Estimation 1426
Estuarine Community 1426
Ethiopian Realm 1426
Etiology 1426
Eucharitidae 1426
Eucinetidae 1426
Eucnemidae 1426
Eucoilidae 1427
Eukaryote 1427
Eulichadid Beetles 1427
Eulichadidae 1427
Eulophidae 1427
Eumastacidae 1427
Eupelmidae 1427
Euplantulae 1427
Eupterotidae 1427
Hibernation 1427
Voltinism 1428
Breeding 1428
Pheromones Govern Beetle Attacks 1429
The Epidemic Threshold 1429
Fungal Associates 1429
Host Tree Defense 1430
Control of Damage 1430
References 1430
European Castor Bean Tick, Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus) (Acari: Ixodidae) 1431
European Chafer, Rhizotrogus majalis Razoumowsky (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 1431
European Cherry Fruit Fly, Rhagoletis cerasi (L) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 1431
References 1432
European Earwig, Forficula auricularia Linnaeus (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) 1432
Life History 1433
Damage 1434
Management 1435
References 1435
European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) 1435
Host Plants 1436
Natural Enemies 1436
Life Cycle and Description 1437
Egg 1437
Larva 1437
Pupa 1438
Adult 1438
Damage 1439
Management 1439
Sampling 1439
Insecticides 1439
Cultural practices 1439
Host plant resistance 1440
Biological control 1440
References 1440
European Honey Bee 1440
European Foulbrood 1441
Reference 1441
European Red Mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch) (Acari: Tetranychidae) 1441
European Sheep Tick, Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus) (Acari: Ixodidae) 1441
European Wheat Stem Sawfly 1441
Eurybrachidae 1441
Eurychoromyiidae 1441
Eurytomidae 1441
Eusocial Behavior 1441
Eustheniidae 1442
Euthyplociidae 1442
Evagin*tion 1442
Evaniidae 1442
Evans, Howard Ensign 1442
Reference 1442
Eversible 1442
Excitorepellency 1442
Ex Larva 1442
Eye-Cap Moths (Lepidoptera: Opostegidae) 1443
References 1443
Eye Gnats 1443
Exarate Pupa 1443
Excretion 1443
Exocrine Gland 1443
Exocuticle 1443
Exogenous 1443
Exogenous DNA 1444
Exopeptidases 1444
Exopterygota 1444
Exoskeleton 1444
Exotic 1444
Exotoxins 1444
Exploratory Learning 1444
Exploratory Trail 1444
Exponential Growth 1444
Expression Vector 1444
Extra-oral Digestion 1444
Extrafloral Nectary 1444
Extrinsic Factors 1445
Exuviae 1445
Eyes 1445
Eyes and Vision 1445
Compound Eye Structure 1447
Visual Acuity 1449
The Optic Lobe 1451
Ocelli and Stemmata 1451
The Chemical Cascade Leading to Vision 1451
Color Vision 1452
Detection of Plane Polarized Light by Insects 1454
References 1456
fulltext_6.pdf 1457
Fabre, Jean-Henri Casimir 1457
References 1457
Fabricius, Johann Christian 1457
References 1458
Face 1458
Face Fly, Musca autumnalis De Geer (Diptera: Muscidae) 1458
Distribution and Colonization of North America 1460
Reproductive Biology 1460
Phenology and Overwintering 1461
Veterinary Significance 1462
Management 1463
References 1463
Facet 1463
Factitious 1463
Factitious Host 1464
Facultative Agents 1464
Facultative Diapause 1464
Facultative Myiasis 1464
Facultative Parasitism 1464
Facultative Predators 1464
Insect and Arachnid Groups Containing Facultative Predators 1465
Functions and Role of Facultative Predation 1465
Facultative Predators for Biological Pest Control 1467
Conclusions 1469
References 1469
Fairchild, Alexander Graham Bell 1469
Reference 1470
Fairmaire, Léon 1470
Reference 1471
Fairyflies (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) 1471
Diagnosis 1471
Classification 1471
Life History and Habits 1472
Economic Importance 1472
References 1472
Falciform 1473
Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 1473
Life Cycle and Description 1473
Egg 1473
Larva 1473
Pupa 1474
Adult 1474
Host Plants 1474
Damage 1475
Natural Enemies 1475
Management 1475
Sampling 1475
Insecticides 1475
Cultural Techniques 1475
Biological Control 1476
References 1476
Fall, Henry Clinton 1476
Reference 1476
Fallow 1476
False Blister Beetles 1476
False Burnet Moths (Lepidptera: Urodidae) 1476
References 1477
False Click Beetles 1477
False Clown Beetles 1477
False Darkling Beetles 1477
False Diamondback Moths (Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae) 1477
References 1478
False Firefly Beetles 1478
False Flower Beetles 1478
False Ground Beetles 1478
False Katydids 1478
False Long-Horned Beetles 1478
False Metallic Wood-Boring Beetles 1478
False Owlet Moths (Lepidoptera: Thyatiridae) 1478
References 1479
False Pit Scales 1479
False Plume Moths (Lepidoptera: Tineodidae) 1479
References 1479
False Skin Beetles 1479
False Soft Scales 1480
False Wireworm 1480
Family 1480
Fanniidae 1480
Fast-Footed Bugs 1480
Fastigium 1480
Fat Body 1480
Fatty Acid Binding Proteins 1480
References 1482
Fauriellidae 1482
Fauvel, Charles Adolphe Albert 1483
Reference 1483
Feather-Winged Beetles 1483
Feces 1483
Fecundity 1483
Feeding Deterrents 1483
Felt, Ephraim Porter 1483
Reference 1484
Femur (pl, femora) 1484
Fenichel, Sámuel 1484
Reference 1485
Fennah, Ronald Gordon 1485
References 1485
Feral 1486
Fergusoninidae 1486
Fernald, Charles Henry 1486
Reference 1486
Fern Scale, Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 1487
Ferris, Gordon Floyd 1487
Reference 1487
Ferruginous 1487
Fertility 1487
Fertilization 1487
Festoons 1487
Fetid 1487
Fibroin 1487
Fideliidae 1487
Field Capacity 1488
Field Crickets 1488
Fig Rots 1488
Fig Wasps 1488
References 1488
Filariasis 1488
File 1488
Filiform 1488
Filter Chamber 1488
Filter Feeders 1489
Filter Rearing System for Sterile Insect Technology 1489
References 1490
Filth Fly Parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) in North America 1491
References 1491
Finger-Net Caddisflies 1493
Fingerprinting 1493
Fire Blight 1493
Fire-Colored Beetles 1493
Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) 1493
Life history 1497
Eggs 1497
Larvae 1497
Pupae 1501
Adults 1502
Sexual Communication 1503
Daytime-Dark Fireflies 1503
Glowworm Fireflies 1504
Lightningbug Fireflies 1505
Flash Pattern Specificity 1506
Female Flash Response 1506
Supernumerary Flash Patterns, Pattern Change-Over and Defaulting 1507
Miscellaneous Flashes 1507
Aggressive Mimicry 1508
Flash Pattern Mimicry 1508
Conclusion 1508
Fireflies and Intrusive Light 1508
Noise 1509
Illumination 1510
Misinformation 1510
Intrusive Light as a Synergistic Aggravator 1511
Essences of Lumens 1511
Applications of Firefly Chemistry 1513
Common Questions Asked About Fireflies 1514
Fireflies and Human Culture 1515
References 1515
Fireflies: Control of Flashing 1516
Morphology and Physiology of the Photuris lantern 1517
Firefly Flash Control 1520
References 1526
First Grub 1527
Fischer Von Waldheim, Gotthelf 1527
References 1527
Fishflies 1527
Fitch, Asa 1527
Reference 1527
Fixed-Sample Size Sampling Plan 1528
Flabellate 1528
Flabellum 1528
Fitness 1528
Flacherie 1528
Flagellomere 1528
Flagellum 1528
Flannel Moths (Lepidoptera: Megalopygidae) 1528
References 1529
Flapping Flight 1530
Flash Colors 1530
References 1530
Flat Bark Beetles 1530
Flat Bugs 1530
Flat Flies 1531
Flat Grain Beetle, Cryptolestes pusillus (Schönherr) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) 1531
Flat-Footed Flies 1531
Flatidae 1531
Flea Beetles 1531
Flea Beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae) 1531
Crucifer Flea Beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae (Goeze) 1531
Morphology 1532
Host Range and Food Selection 1532
Biology 1533
Damage 1533
Economic Impact 1536
Management 1536
Economic Thresholds 1536
Monitoring 1536
Cultural Practices 1536
Host Plant Resistance 1537
Biological Control 1537
Chemical Control 1537
References 1537
Flea Collar 1538
Fleas (Siphonaptera) 1538
Classification 1538
Characteristics 1538
Biology 1539
Problems Associated With Domestic Fleas 1540
Domestic Fleas 1540
Management of Fleas Affecting Household Pets 1540
Treating the Pet 1541
Treating the Home 1541
Treating the Yard 1541
References 1542
Flesh Flies 1542
Fletcher, James 1542
Reference 1542
Flies (Diptera) 1543
Classification 1543
Characteristics 1545
Biology and Importance 1545
Important Taxa 1545
Crane Flies (Tipulidae) 1548
Mosquitoes (Culicidae) 1548
Black Flies (Simuliidae) 1548
Biting Midges (Ceratopogonidae) 1548
Fungus Gnats (Mycetophilidae) 1548
Gall Midges (Cecidomyiidae) 1549
Horse or Deer Flies (Tabanidae) 1549
Robber Flies (Asilidae) 1549
Bee Flies (Bombyliidae) 1549
Flower or Hover Flies (Syrphidae) 1549
Small Fruit Flies (Drosophilidae) 1550
Warble or Bot Flies (Oestridae) 1550
Blow Flies (Calliphoridae) 1550
Tachinid Flies (Tachinidae) 1550
Leaf Miners (Agromyzidae) 1551
Large Fruit Flies (Tephritidae) 1551
References 1551
Flocculant 1551
Florida Red Scale, Chrysomphalus aonidum (L) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 1552
Floristic Kingdoms 1552
Flour Beetle 1552
Flowable 1552
Flower Beetles 1552
Flower Flies 1552
Flower Moths (Lepidoptera: Scythrididae) 1552
References 1553
Flower Strips as Ecological Compensation Areas for Pest Management 1553
Flower Strips 1553
Establishment of Flower Strips 1553
Seed Mixtures 1554
Maintenance 1554
Flower Strips and Farmers 1556
Weeds 1557
Response of Beneficial Insects to Flower Strips 1557
Economic Impact of Flower Strips 1558
References 1558
Flower Thrips, Frankliniella spp (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) 1558
Flower-Loving Flies 1558
Flutter Flies 1559
Fly Paper 1559
Focus (pl, foci) 1559
Foliar Application 1559
Folivory 1559
Follicular Epithelium 1559
Food-Based Poisoned Baits for Insect Control 1559
History 1559
Different Types of Baits 1562
Advantages of Baits 1562
References 1567
Food Canal 1567
Food Chain 1567
Food Habits of Insects 1568
What do Insects Eat? 1568
Insects That do not Eat 1569
Insects That Eat Living Plants 1570
Insects That Eat Living Animals 1573
Insects That Eat Dead Plants and Animals 1575
References 1576
Food Web 1576
Foote, Richard H 1576
Reference 1577
Footman Moths 1577
Foramen Magnum 1577
Forbivory 1577
Forbes, Stephen Alfred 1577
Reference 1578
Forceps 1578
Ford, Edmund Brisco 1578
Reference 1579
Foregut 1579
Foreign Exploration for Insects that Feed on Weeds 1579
Criteria for Successful Exploration 1580
Plant Ecology 1580
Geographic Origin and Climate 1580
References 1581
Forel, Auguste Henri 1581
Reference 1581
Forensic Entomology 1582
References 1583
Forest Flies 1583
Forficulidae 1583
Formicary 1583
Formicidae 1583
Formosan Subterranean Termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) 1583
References 1586
Formulation 1586
Fossil Record of Insects 1586
References 1588
Fossorial 1588
Founder Effect 1588
Foundress 1588
Fourcroy, Antoine-François (Comte De) 1588
Reference 1589
Four-Legged Mites (Eriophyoidea or Tetrapodili) 1589
Leaf injury 1592
Vectors of Plant Disease 1592
Some Major Pests 1593
Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Citrus Rust Mite) 1593
Aculus cornutus (Peach Silver Mite) 1594
Aculops lycopersici (Tomato Rust Mite) 1594
Aculus schlechtendali (Apple Rust Mite) 1594
Pesticides and Pesticide Resistance 1594
Invasive Species 1595
Biological Control of Weeds by Eriophyoids 1595
Identification of Eriophyoids 1596
References 1596
Fovea 1596
Frass 1596
Frenate 1597
Frenular Hook 1597
Frenulum 1597
Fringe-Tufted Moths (Lepidoptera: Epermeniidae) 1597
References 1597
Fringe-Winged Beetles 1597
Frisch, K Von 1598
Reference 1598
Frit Fly, Oscinella frit (L) (Diptera: Chloropidae) 1598
Frivaldszky, Imre 1598
References 1599
Frivaldszky, János 1599
Reference 1599
Froggatt, Walter Wilson 1599
References 1600
Froghoppers 1600
Frons 1600
Front 1600
Frontal Suture 1600
Frugivory 1600
Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) 1600
Adult 1601
Immature stages 1601
Plant Relationships 1602
Life History 1602
Behavior 1602
Control 1603
Evolutionary Studies 1603
Importance to Humans 1603
References 1603
Fruit Stalk Borer, Oryectes elegans Prell (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 1604
Importance and Damage 1604
Biology 1604
Control 1604
References 1605
Fruitworm Beetles 1605
Fruitworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae) 1605
References 1605
Fulgoridae 1605
Fulgoroidea 1605
Fuller Rose Beetle, Asynonychus godmani (Crotch) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1606
Fumigant 1606
Fumigation 1606
Functional Genomics 1606
Functional Response 1606
Fundatrix (pl, fundatrigeniae) 1606
Fungal Pathogens of Insects 1606
Life Cycle and Invasion of the Host 1608
Epizootics, Biological Control, and Population Regulation 1608
Ecology 1611
Techniques for Studying Fungal Pathogens of Insects 1613
References 1614
Fungicide 1614
Fungivorous 1614
Fungivory 1614
Fungus Beetles 1615
Fungus Gnats (Diptera: Mycetophilidae and Others) 1615
References 1618
Fungus Moths (Lepidoptera: Tineidae) 1618
References 1619
Furanocoumarins 1619
Occurrence in Plants 1620
Effects of Furanocoumarins 1620
Insects 1620
Domestic Animals 1620
Photodynamic Therapy 1620
Mode of Action 1621
Risks and Benefits Associated With Furanocoumarins 1621
Side Effects of Photodynamic Therapy 1622
References 1622
Furcate 1622
Furcula 1622
Furniture Beetles 1623
Fused 1623
Fusiform 1623
fulltext_7.pdf 1625
Gahan, Arthur Burton 1625
Reference 1625
Galápagos Islands Insects: Colonization, Structure, and Evolution 1625
Colonization Processes 1627
Aerial Transport (Actively by Flight and/or Passively by Wind) 1628
Marine Transport 1629
Transport on or in Other Animals 1629
Human Mediated Transport 1629
Sources of the Colonists 1630
Stochastic (Random) Processes in Colonization and Distribution 1630
Structure of the Insect Fauna 1631
An Unbalanced Fauna 1631
Trophic Generalists 1631
Trophic Specialists 1631
Ecological Escape 1631
Parthenogenesis 1631
Vegetational Zonation and Diversity 1631
Seasonality 1632
Evolutionary Dynamics 1632
Genus Level Endemism 1632
Species Level Endemism 1632
Speciation 1633
Winged Endemic Species 1633
Loss of Wings 1633
Speciation and Flightlessness 1634
Adaptive Radiation 1634
Subterranean Arthropods 1634
Extinction 1635
Future Research 1635
References 1636
Galea (pl galeae) 1636
Gall 1636
Gall Formation 1636
Studies of Insect Extracts and Secretions 1637
Studies of Auxin and Cytokinin Involvement in Insect Gall Formation 1638
References 1640
Gall Midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) 1640
Classification 1640
Morphology 1641
Biology 1641
Economic Importance 1644
References 1644
Gall Moths (Lepidoptera: Cecidosidae) 1644
References 1645
Gall Wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) 1645
Gall Diversity 1645
Biology 1646
Gall Inhabitants 1646
Abundance and Distribution 1646
Economic Importance 1647
References 1647
Gamagrass Leafhopper, Dalbulus quinquenotatus Delong & Nault (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 1647
References 1649
Gallinipper 1649
Gamete 1650
Gamma Taxonomy 1650
Ganglbauer, Ludwig 1650
Reference 1650
Ganglion (pl ganglia) 1650
Garden Symphylan, Scutigerella immaculata (Newport) (Symphyla: Scutigerellidae) 1651
Gaster 1651
Gasteruptiidae 1651
Gastric Caecum (pl gastric caeca) 1651
GauseŁs Principle 1651
Gelastocoridae 1651
Gelechiidae 1651
Gel Electrophoresis 1651
Gena 1651
Gene Amplification 1651
Gene Cloning 1651
Gene Duplication 1651
Gene Expression 1652
Gene Flow 1652
Gene Gun 1652
Gene Library 1652
Gene Regulation 1652
General-Use Pesticide 1652
Generalist 1653
Generation 1653
Genetic Modification of Drosophila by P Elements 1653
P Elements are Disposable Elements 1653
Hybrid Dysgenesis 1653
P Element Structure Varies 1654
Transposition Method 1654
How Did P Elements Invade
D melanogaster? 1654
P Element Vectors and Genetic Modification of D melanogaster 1655
Uses for P Element Vectors 1657
Transformation of Other Insects by P Elements 1657
Evolution of Resistance to P Elements 1657
Using P Elements to Drive Genes into Populations 1658
References 1658
Genetic Code 1659
Genetic Control 1659
Genetic Distance 1659
Genetic Engineering 1659
Genetic Linkage 1659
Genetic Marker 1659
Genetic Sexing 1659
Structure of GSS Based on the Selectable Markers wp and tsl 1660
References 1661
Genetic Transformation 1661
References 1663
Gene Transfer 1663
Gengidae 1664
Geniculate 1664
Genitalia 1664
Genome 1664
Genomes of Insects 1664
Nuclear Genome Size and Content 1664
Sequencing Nuclear Genomes 1665
Chromosome Systems in Arthropods 1666
Parthenogenesis 1666
Endopolyploidy in Arthropods 1667
Noncoding DNA 1667
Mitochondria 1668
Transposable Elements 1669
Symbionts of Arthropods 1670
References 1670
Genomics 1670
Genotype 1670
Genus (pl genera) 1670
Geographic Information System (GIS) 1670
Geological Time 1670
Reference 1673
Geometer Moths (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) 1674
References 1675
Geometridae 1675
Geophilous 1675
Georeference 1675
Geotaxis 1675
Geotrupidae 1675
Geridae 1675
German co*ckroach, Blattella germanica (Linnaeus) (Blattodea: Blattelidae) 1675
Germar, Ernst Friedrich 1675
Reference 1676
Germarium 1676
Germ Band 1676
Ghilarov, Mercury Sergeevich 1676
Reference 1677
Ghost Moths (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) 1677
References 1677
Giant Axons 1678
Giant Coccids 1678
Giant Butterfly Moths (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) 1678
References 1678
Giant Hooktip Moths (Lepidoptera: Cyclidiidae) 1678
References 1679
Giant Lacewings 1679
Giant Lappet Moths (Lepidoptera: Eupterotidae) 1679
References 1680
Giant Leaf Katydids 1680
Giant Mealybugs 1680
Giant Northern Australia Termite 1680
Giant Silkworm Moths 1680
Giant Stoneflies 1680
Giant Water Bugs (Hemiptera: Prosorrhyncha Belostomatidae) 1680
Morphology 1680
Taxonomy 1681
Biology 1682
Natural Enemies 1683
Distribution 1684
Ecological and Economic Significance 1684
Evolution 1684
References 1685
Gill 1685
Girault, Alexandre Arsène 1685
References 1685
Gizzard 1685
Glabrous 1685
Gladiators (Mantophasmatodea) 1686
Characteristics 1686
Biology 1686
Taxonomy 1686
References 1687
Glaphyridae 1687
Glaresid Beetles 1687
Glaresidae 1687
Glassy-Winged Sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 1687
References 1691
Glial Cell 1691
Global Positioning System (GPS) 1691
Globular Springtails 1691
Glory Moths (Lepidoptera: Endromidae) 1691
References 1691
Glossa (pl glossae) 1692
Glossinidae 1692
Glossosomatidae 1692
Glossy 1692
Glover Scale, Lepidosaphes gloveri (Packard) (Hemiptera: Diaspidae) 1692
Glover, Townend 1692
Reference 1693
Glowworms 1693
References 1694
Glycogen 1694
GLP 1694
Glyphipterigidae 1694
Gmelin, Johann Friedrich 1694
Reference 1694
Gnat Bugs 1694
Gnotobiotic Culture 1694
Goat Moths 1694
Goblet Cells 1695
Goblets 1695
Gobryidae 1695
Goeldi, Emil (Emilio) August 1695
References 1695
Gold Moths (Lepidoptera: Axiidae) 1695
References 1696
Gomphidae 1696
Gonad 1696
Gondwanaland Moths (Lepidoptera: Palaephatidae) 1696
References 1697
Gonopod 1697
Gonopore 1697
Gorgas, William Crawford 1697
References 1698
Gossamer-Winged Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) 1698
References 1699
Gracillariidae 1699
Gradual Metamorphosis 1699
Graham, Marcus William Robert De Vere 1699
Reference 1700
Grain Beetles 1700
Grain Borers 1700
Grain Weevils 1700
Gramineous Lepidopteran Stem Borders in Africa 1700
Distribution of Major Stem Borers of Maize, Sorghum, Rice and Pearl Millet 1701
Distribution and Pest Status of African Sugarcane Stem Borers 1701
Pest Status of Mussidia nigrivenella Ragonot, a Cob-borer of Maize in Western Africa 1704
Displacement of Native Stem Borers by Chilo partellus 1704
Damage and Pest Status 1705
Busseola Fusca 1705
Chilo Spp 1705
Sesamia spp 1706
Eldana Saccharina 1706
Stem Borer...Fungal Interactions 1706
Larval Diapause 1707
Pest Management 1708
Use of Synthetic Sex Pheromones 1708
Cultural Control 1709
Managing Crop Residues 1709
Manipulation of Sowing Dates and Plant Densities 1710
Fertilizers 1711
Intercropping and Habitat Management 1712
Host Plant Resistance 1713
Introduction of Biological Control of Chilo partellus in Africa 1713
Biological Control of Chilo sacchariphagus on the Indian Ocean Islands and Africa 1714
Biological Control Attempts: Lessons from the Past 1715
The Imoprtance of Predation by Ants 1715
Revised Biological Control with the Use of Trichogramma sp 1715
C sacchapriphagus in Mozambique: a Threat to the South African Sugar Industry 1716
References 1716
Graminivory 1717
References 1717
Granary Weevil, Sitophilus granarius (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1717
Granivory 1717
Granular Formulation 1717
Granule 1717
Granulocyte 1717
Granulosis 1717
Granulovirus 1717
Granulovirus Infection (Granulosis) 1718
General Aspects of Granulovirus 1719
Molecular Biology of Granulovirus 1719
Genome 1719
Structural Proteins 1719
Cycle of GV Infection in Susceptible Insects 1720
Primary Cycle of Infection 1720
Secondary Cycle of Infection 1720
Use of Baculovirus against Lepidoptera 1721
A Case Study: Use of Choristoneura fumiferana Granulovirus (ChfuGV) in Canada 1722
Production of Granulovirus-based Insecticides 1723
Standardization and Quantification of Granulovirus-based Insecticides 1723
Methods of Application of Granuloviruss-based Insecticides 1724
The Future of Granulovirus 1724
References 1724
Grape Berry Moth, Endopiza viteana Clemens (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 1724
Grape Leafhopper, Erythroneura sp (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 1725
Grape Phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch) (Hemiptera: Aphidoidea: Phylloxeridae) 1725
Life Cycle and Biology 1725
Native Range 1725
Vineyards 1726
Damage and Management 1726
References 1727
Grape Root Borer, Vitacea polistiformes (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) 1727
Grapevine Leafhopper Complex (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Cyprus 1728
References 1729
Grass 1729
Grass Flies 1730
Grasshopper and Locust Pests in Africa 1730
Desert Locust, Schistocera gregaria (Forskål) 1733
Migratory Locust, Locusta migratoria migratorioides (Reiche & Fairmaire) 1734
Red Locust, Nomadacris septemfasciata (Serville) 1734
Brown Locust, Locustana pardalina (Walker) 1735
Moroccan Locust, Dociostaurus maroccanus (Thunberg) 1735
Tree Locust, Anacridium melanorhodon (Walker) 1735
Senegalese Grasshopper, Oedaleus senegalensis (Krauss) 1736
Sudan Plague Locust, Aiolopus simulatrix (Walker) 1736
Variegated Grasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus (Linnaeus) 1736
Damage 1737
Management 1737
References 1739
Grasshopper and Locust Pests in Australia 1739
Pest Species of Grasshoppers in Australia 1740
Australian Plague Locust, Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker) 1740
Spur-Throated Locust, Austracris guttulosa (Walker) 1743
Migratory Locust, Locusta migratoria migratorioides (Reiche & Fairmaire) 1743
Wingless Grasshopper, Phaulacridium vittatum (Sjöstedt) 1744
Management Strategies 1745
References 1745
Grasshopper Pests in North America 1746
Identity of Crop-Feeding Grasshoppers (Families Acrididae, Romaleidae, Tettigoniidae) 1746
Life Cycle of Crop-Feeding Grasshoppers 1747
Management of Crop-Feeding Grasshoppers 1748
Identity of Rangeland Grasshoppers 1748
Life Cycle of Rangeland Grasshoppers 1750
Management of Rangeland Grasshoppers 1752
References 1753
Grasshoppers 1753
Grasshoppers and Locusts as Agricultural Pests 1754
Grasshopper and Locust Control 1755
Chemical Control 1755
Biological Control 1756
References 1758
Grasshoppers, Katydids and Crickets (Orthoptera) 1758
Suborder Caelifera 1760
Family Acrididae 1761
Subfamily Acridinae (Silent Slantfaced Grasshoppers) 1761
Subfamily Calliptamine 1762
Subfamily Catantopinae (Old World Spurthroated Grasshoppers) 1762
Subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae 1762
Subfamily Eyprepocnemidinae 1762
Subfamily Gomphocerinae
(Stridulating Slantfaced
Grasshoppers) 1762
Subfamily Melanoplinae (New World Spurthroated Grasshoppers) 1763
Subfamily Oedipodinae (Bandwinged Grasshoppers) 1763
Subfamily Oxyinae 1763
Family Eumastacidae 1763
Family Pamphagidae 1764
Family Pyrgomorphidae 1764
Family Romaleidae 1764
Family Tanoceridae 1765
Family Tetrigidae 1765
Family Tridactylidae 1765
Suborder Ensifera 1765
Family Anostostomatidae 1766
Family Cooloolidae 1767
Family Gryllacrididae 1767
Family Gryllidae 1767
Subfamily Eneopterinae (Bush Crickets) 1768
Subfamily Gryllinae (Field Crickets) 1768
Subfamily Nemobiinae (Ground Crickets) 1768
Subfamily Oecanthinae (Tree Crickets) 1769
Subfamily Trigoniinae (Sword-Tail Crickets) 1769
Family Gryllotalpidae 1769
Family Mogopistinae 1770
Family Myrmecophilidae 1770
Family Rhaphidophoridae 1770
Family Stenopelmatidae 1770
Family Tettigoniidae 1771
Subfamily Conocephalinae (Meadow and Coneheaded Katydids) 1772
Subfamily Meconematinae (Quiet-Calling Katydids) 1772
Subfamily Phaneropterinae (False Katydids) 1772
Subfamily Phyllophorinae (Giant Leaf Katydids) 1772
Subfamily Pseudophyllinae (True Katydids) 1772
Subfamily Saginae (Stick Katydids) 1772
Subfamily Tettigoniinae (Shield-Backed Katydids) 1772
Evolution of Orthoptera 1772
Natural Enemies of Orthoptera 1773
Importance of Orthoptera to Humans 1774
Management of Orthoptera Pests 1775
References 1776
Grasshoppers of the Argentine Pampas 1776
References 1778
Grassi, Giovanni Battista 1778
Reference 1779
Grass Miner Moths (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) 1779
References 1779
Grass Moths 1779
Gravenhorst, Johan Ludwig Christian 1780
Reference 1780
Gravid 1780
Gray Mold of Grapes 1780
Graybacks 1780
Greater Date Moth, Arenipses sabella Hmps (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1780
Description 1780
Behavior 1781
Biology and Damage 1781
Control 1781
References 1781
Greater Fritillaries or Silverspots, Speyeria [=Argynnis] (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) 1782
Life History 1782
Conservation 1784
References 1786
Greenbottle Flies 1786
Greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Rondoni) (Hempitera: Aphididae) 1786
Green-Eyed Skimmers 1786
Green Flies 1786
Greenheads 1786
Greenhouse Whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 1787
Life History 1787
Damage 1789
Management 1789
References 1790
Green June Beetle, Cotnius nitida (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 1790
Green Lacewings 1791
Green Muscardine 1791
Green Peach Aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 1791
Life History 1791
Natural Enemies 1792
Damage 1793
Management 1793
References 1794
Green Stoneflies 1794
Green Vegetable Bug 1794
Gregarines of Insects 1794
References 1796
Gregarious Behavior 1797
Gregarious Behavior in Insects 1797
Benefits of Gregarious Behavior 1798
Mate Finding 1798
Facilitation of Feeding 1798
Microhabitat Modification 1799
Protection from Natural Enemies 1799
Costs of Gregarious Behavior 1800
Intraspecific Competition 1800
Pathogen Transmission 1800
Increased Conspicuousness to Predators 1801
Physiological Costs 1801
Population Level Consequences of Gregarious Behavior 1801
The Desert Locust 1801
The Mormon Cricket 1803
References 1804
Gregarious Parasitoid 1804
Gressitt, Judson Linsley 1804
Reference 1805
Grid Mapping 1805
Gripopterygidae 1805
Grooming 1805
Grote, Augustus Radcliffe 1805
Reference 1806
Ground Beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Feeding Ecology 1806
General Feeding Ecology 1806
Feeding Preferences 1806
Searching for Food 1807
Prey Capture 1807
Digestion 1808
Applied Feeding Ecology 1808
Predation of Aphids and Leafhoppers 1808
Predation of Flies 1809
Predation of Beetles 1809
Predation of Moths 1810
Conclusion 1811
References 1811
Ground Beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Taxonomy 1811
References 1816
Ground Beetles 1816
Ground Crickets 1816
Ground Pearls 1816
Group Predation 1817
Group Selection 1817
Grouse Locusts 1817
Grub 1817
Gryllacrididae 1817
Gryllacridoids 1817
Gryllidae 1817
Grylloblattodea 1817
Gryllotalpidae 1817
Gryropidae 1817
Guenée, Achille 1817
Reference 1818
Guérin-Méneville, Félix Edouard 1818
Reference 1818
Guest 1818
Guild 1818
Guinea Pig Lice 1818
Gula 1818
Gundlach, Johannes (Juan) Christopher 1818
Reference 1819
Gustatory 1819
Gut pH 1819
Gyllenhal, Leonhard 1819
Reference 1819
Gynandromorph 1820
Gyne 1820
Gynopara (pl gynoparae) 1820
Gypsy Moth, Lymantria dispar Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) 1820
Biology 1821
Dispersal 1821
Hosts 1822
Damage 1822
Nuisance Factors 1822
Natural Enemies 1822
Control 1822
References 1823
Gyrinidae 1823
Gyropidae 1823
fulltext_8.pdf 1825
Habitat 1825
Habitat Diversity 1825
Habituation 1825
Haddow, Alexander John 1825
Reference 1825
Haematomyzidae 1825
Haematopinidae 1825
Hagen, Hermann August 1826
References 1826
Hagen, Kenneth Sverre 1826
References 1826
Hahn, Carl Wilhelm 1827
Reference 1827
Hair Pencil 1827
Hair Plate 1827
Hairstreaks 1827
Hairy Chinch Bug, Blissus leucopterus hirtus Montandon (Hempitera: Lygaeidae) 1827
Hairy Fungus Beetles 1827
Hale Carpenter, Geoffrey Douglas 1827
Reference 1827
Half Life 1828
Halictidae 1828
Halictophagidae 1828
Haliday, Alexander Henry 1828
Reference 1828
Halimococcidae 1828
Haliplidae 1828
Haltere 1828
Hamophthiriidae 1828
Hamulus 1828
Handling Time 1829
Handlirsch, Anton 1829
Reference 1829
Handsome Fungus Beetles 1829
Hangingflies 1829
Hansen, Viktor 1829
Reference 1829
Haplodiploidy 1829
Haploid 1829
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium 1830
Harlequin Bug 1830
Harlequin Bug, Murgantia histrionica (Hahn) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) 1830
Life History 1830
Damage 1831
Management 1832
References 1832
Harris, Thaddeus William 1832
References 1832
Harvester Ants 1832
Harvester Ants, Pogonomyrmex Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 1833
References 1835
Harvesters 1835
Hatch, Melville Harrison 1835
References 1835
Haustellate 1835
Haustellum 1835
Hawk Lice 1835
Hawk Moths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) 1836
References 1836
Hazelnut and Walnut Twig Borer, Oberea linearis L (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 1836
References 1838
Head 1838
Head Lice, Pediculus humanus capitus DeGeer (Phthiraptera: Pediculidae) 1838
Head of Hexapods 1838
References 1845
Heart 1846
Hebridae 1846
Hedylidae 1846
Heel Flies 1846
Heer, Oswald 1846
Reference 1847
Heleomyzidae 1847
Helgrammite 1847
Helicopsychidae 1847
Helicosporidium 1847
References 1849
Heliodinidae 1849
Heliomyzid Flies 1849
Heliozelidae 1849
Heloridae 1849
Helosciomyzidae 1849
Helotrephidae 1849
Hematophagous 1849
Hematophagy 1849
Hemelytron (pl hemelytra) 1849
Hemerobiidae 1850
Hemipsocidae 1850
Hemiptera 1850
Hemimetabolous Development 1850
Hemocoel 1850
Hemocoelic Insemination 1850
Hemocytes of Insects: Their Morphology and Function 1851
References 1854
Hemolymph 1854
Hemolytic Anemia 1854
Hemophagous 1854
Henicocoridae 1855
Henneguy, Louis Félix 1855
Reference 1855
Hennig, Willi 1855
References 1856
Hepialidae 1856
Heptageniidae 1856
Heptapsogastridae 1856
Herbaceous Vegetation 1856
Herbicide 1856
Herbivore 1856
Herbivory 1856
Herman, Ottó 1856
References 1857
Hermaphrodite 1857
Hermatobatidae 1857
Herrich-Schäffer, Gottlieb August 1857
Reference 1858
Hesperiidae 1858
Hesperinidae 1858
Hessian Fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) 1858
Life History 1859
Injury to Wheat 1859
Control 1860
Hessian fly Resistance in Wheat 1860
Hessian fly Biotypes 1861
Management and durability of resistance 1861
References 1861
Heterobathmiidae 1862
Heteroceridae 1862
Heteroecious Life Cycle 1862
Heterogamy 1862
Heterogastridae 1862
Heterogynaidae 1862
Heterogynidae 1862
Heteronemiidae 1862
Heteroptera 1862
Heterosis 1862
Heterotroph 1862
Heterothripidae 1862
Heterozygosity 1862
Heterozygous 1863
Hewitt, Charles Gordon 1863
Hexapoda 1863
Hibernaculum 1863
Hilarimorphid Flies 1863
Hilarimorphidae 1863
Hilltopping 1863
Hilltopping Taxa 1864
Definition of Hilltopping 1864
Hilltopping Behavior 1867
General 1867
Effectiveness of Hilltopping for Males Seeking Mates 1868
Evidence for Hilltopping 1868
Timing and Weather 1869
Distances Covered 1869
Site Tenacity 1869
Survey of Hilltopping Insects 1870
Conservation 1870
References 1871
Himantopteridae 1871
Hindgut 1871
Hinton, Howard Everest 1871
References 1872
Hippoboscidae 1872
Hirsutella 1872
References 1873
Hister Beetles 1874
Histeridae 1874
Histopathology 1874
History and Insects 1874
America, the French and Yellow Fever 1874
Yellow Fever and the Transatlantic Slave Trade 1875
Insects, Greece, Rome and the Mongols 1875
Bubonic Plague 1876
The Black Death Changes Europe 1877
Insects and Armies 1879
Napoleon in Russia 1880
The Mexican War of 1847 1880
The Crimean War 1880
The American Civil War 1881
World War I 1882
The Russian Revolution 1883
Lice 1883
Mosquitoes 1884
Tsetse Fly 1884
Black Flies 1885
Mosquitoes, Disease and Society 1885
The Continuing Effects of Insects on Society 1886
References 1890
History of Biological Control of Wheat Stem Sawflies (Hymenoptera: Cephidae) 1890
Sawfly Natural Enemies 1891
Previous Biological Control Programs 1892
Summary 1893
References 1893
Hobby, Bertram Maurice 1894
References 1894
Hocking, Brian 1894
Reference 1894
Hodotermitidae 1895
Holarctic Realm (Nearctic and Palearctic Realms) 1895
Holcopogonidae 1895
Holdfast 1895
Holidic Diet 1895
Holland, William Jacob 1895
References 1895
Holocyclic Life Cycle 1896
Holometabolous Development 1896
Holoptic 1896
Holotype 1896
Homeostasis 1896
Homeothermic 1896
Homeotic Gene 1896
Homeotic Genes in Coleoptera 1896
References 1899
hom*ologous Chromosomes 1899
hom*ologous Genes 1899
hom*ology 1899
hom*oplasy 1899
hom*optera 1899
hom*otomidae 1899
hom*ozygous 1899
Honey Bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) 1899
Anatomy 1900
Life History 1900
Behavior and Physiology 1902
Genetics and Breeding 1903
References 1904
Honey Bees 1904
Honey Bee Sexuality: An Historical Perspective 1904
References 1906
Honeydew 1907
Honey Pot 1907
Hood 1907
Hoogstraal, Harry 1907
References 1909
Hooktip Moths (Lepidoptera: Drepanidae) 1910
References 1910
Hope, Frederick William 1910
References 1911
Hopkins, Andrew Delmar 1911
References 1913
Hopperburn 1913
Hoplopleuridae 1913
H-Organ 1913
References 1915
Horizontal Gene Transfer 1915
Horizontal Transmission 1915
Hormoligosis 1915
References 1916
Hormone 1916
Horned Powder-Post Beetles 1916
Hornets 1916
Horn Fly, Haematobia irritans (L) (Diptera: Muscidae) 1916
References 1919
Horn, George Henry 1919
References 1919
Horn, Hermann Wilhelm Walther 1919
Reference 1920
Horntails 1920
Hornworm 1920
Horse Flies 1920
Horse Flies and Deer Flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) 1920
Control 1922
References 1923
Horsehair Worms (Nematomorpha) 1923
Horsfall, William R 1923
Reference 1924
Horticultural Oil 1924
Dormant Oils 1924
Summer Oils 1925
Stylet Oils 1925
Vegetable Oils 1925
Phytotoxicity 1925
Horticultural Oil 1926
Host 1926
Host Feeding 1926
Host Location in Parasitic Wasps 1926
References 1927
Host Plant Resistance 1927
Host Plant Selection by Insects 1927
Description and Discussion of the Seven Earlier Hypotheses 1928
Physical Obstruction 1928
Visual Camouflage 1929
Masking of Host Plant Odors 1929
Repellent Chemicals 1929
Altering the Profiles of the Host Plant Odors 1930
The Resource Concentration Hypothesis 1930
The Enemies Hypothesis 1931
Conclusions From Recent Work 1931
Description and Discussion of the New Theory 1931
General Discussion 1935
Future Work 1935
References 1937
Host Specific 1937
Host Specificity 1937
Host Specificity of Weed-Feeding Insects 1937
Adaptations of Insects to Plants, and of Plants to Insects 1938
Host Selection 1938
Learning 1939
Plant Defenses 1939
Weed-Feeding Insects 1939
References 1940
House Dust Mite 1941
House Fly, Musca domestica L (Diptera: Muscidae) 1941
Life History 1941
Damage 1942
Management 1943
References 1944
Hover Flies 1944
Howard, Leland Ossian 1944
Reference 1945
Hübner, Jacob 1945
References 1945
Huffaker, Carl Barton 1945
Reference 1946
Human Botfly, Dermatobia hominis (Linneaus, Jr.) (Diptera: Oestridae) 1946
References 1947
Human Lice 1947
Biology 1948
Habitat and Epidemiology 1949
Pediculus humanus 1949
Pediculus capitis 1949
P(h)thirus pubis 1949
Disease Transmission 1949
Pediculus humanus 1949
Pediculus capitis and P(h)thirus pubis 1949
Treatment 1950
Pediculus humanus 1950
Pediculus capitis 1950
P(h)thirus pubis 1950
Phthiriasis palpebrarum 1950
References 1950
Humeral 1950
Humeral Angle 1950
Humeral Cross Vein 1950
Hummingbird Lice 1950
Hummingbird Moths 1951
Humpbacked Flies 1951
Human Lymphatic Filariasis (Elephantiasis) 1951
References 1954
Human Scabies 1954
Biology 1955
Injury and Spread 1955
Signs, Symptoms and Diagnosis 1955
Control 1955
Treatment 1956
References 1956
Hungerford, Herbert Barker 1956
References 1956
Hunting Billbug, Sphenophorus venatus vestitus Chittenden (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 1956
Hyaline 1956
Hyblaeidae 1956
Hybosorid Scarab Beetles 1957
Hybosoridae 1957
Hybothiridae 1957
Hybrid Vigor 1957
Hydraenidae 1957
Hydrobiosidae 1957
Hydrometridae 1957
Hydrophilidae 1957
Hydropsychidae 1957
Hydropyle 1957
Hydroscaphidae 1957
Hydrostatic Skeleton 1957
Hygrokinesis 1957
Hygrotaxis 1958
Hymenopodidae 1958
Hymenoptera 1958
Hyocephalidae 1958
Hypericin 1958
Biological Activity 1958
Effects on Insects 1958
Medicinal Use and Potential 1959
Effects on Domestic Animals 1960
Mode of Action 1960
References 1960
Hypermetamorphosis 1960
Hyperparasitoid 1960
Hyperplasia 1961
Hypertely 1961
References 1965
Hypertrehalosemic Hormone (Hth) 1965
Hypertrophy 1965
Hypha (pl., hyphae) 1965
Hypochthonellidae 1965
Hypodermosis in Deer 1965
Effects of Hypodermosis 1966
Deer Health 1966
Rural Development in Poor Areas 1966
Deer Farming 1966
Species and Hosts of Hypoderma spp 1966
Biology 1967
Chronobiology 1967
Prevalence 1968
Other Negative Effects of Hypodermosis 1968
Control 1968
References 1969
Hypogaeic 1969
Hypogastruridae 1969
Hypognathous 1969
Hypopharynx 1969
Hypostomal Bridge 1969
Hypostome 1969
Hypsypterygidae 1970
Hystrichopsyllidae 1970
fulltext_9.pdf 1971
Ibaliidae 1971
Ichneumonid Wasps 1971
Ichneumonidae 1971
Ichthybotidae 1971
Identification of Insects 1971
Insect Keys 1971
Examples of Keys 1983
References 1984
Idiobiont 1984
Idiostolidae 1984
Ihering, Hermann Von 1984
Reference 1984
Ileum 1984
Imaginal Disc 1985
Imago (pl. imagoes) 1985
Immaculate 1985
Imma Moths (Lepidoptera: Immidae) 1985
References 1985
Immature 1985
Immidae 1986
Immigrant 1986
Immiscible 1986
Immigration 1986
Imms, Augustus Daniel 1986
Reference 1986
Immunity 1986
Imported Cabbageworm Pieris (Artogeia) rapae (L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) 1987
Import Permit 1987
Incense-Cedar Wood Wasps 1987
Incidence 1987
Incipient Species 1987
Inclusion Body 1987
Incomplete Metamorphosis 1987
Incubation Period 1988
Incurvariidae 1988
Index of Similarity 1988
Indian Meal Moth Plodia interpunctella Guenée (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 1988
Indicator Species 1988
Indifferent Species 1988
Indigenous 1988
Indirect Flight Muscles 1988
Indirect Pests 1988
Induced Food Preference 1988
Induction 1988
Industrial Melanism 1989
Infection 1989
Infectivity 1989
Infestation 1989
Inflorescence 1989
Innate Capacity for Increase 1989
Innate Immunity 1989
Pattern-Recognition Receptors of Nonself 1990
Signaling Pathways 1991
Antimicrobial Response 1993
Lysozyme 1993
Antibiotic Peptides 1994
Linear Peptides (Cecropins) 1995
Disulfide-Linked Peptides 1996
Proline-Rich Peptides 1997
Glycine-Rich Peptides 1997
Genetics and Biosynthesis of Antibacterial Peptides and Proteins 1998
Cellular Defense Systems 1999
The Phagocytic Process 2001
Cell Surface Receptors and Ligands 2001
Immunoglobulin-like Molecules and Humoral Lectins in Insects 2003
Prophenoloxidase (proPo) Cascade Systems 2005
Cellular Encapsulation 2007
Nodulation 2010
Clotting 2013
Phagocytosis of Nonself 2014
Killing of Engulfed Microorganisms 2015
Microbial Evasion of Cellular Immune Response 2017
Summary 2018
References 2018
Inocelliid Snakeflies 2019
Inocelliidae 2019
Inoculative Biological Control 2019
Inoculum 2019
Inorganic 2019
Inorganic Insecticide 2019
Inornate 2019
Inquilines and Cleptoparasites 2019
References 2022
Insecta 2022
Insect Growth Regulator 2022
Insecticide 2022
Insecticide Application: The Dose Transfer Process 2022
Consumer Usability 2023
Spray Tank 2023
Atomization 2025
Measurement 2026
Characterization 2027
Post-atomization 2027
Impaction and Retention 2029
Redistribution and Deposit Formation 2032
Degradation 2033
Toxicant Acquisition and Biological Result 2033
References 2037
Insecticide Bioassay 2038
References 2040
Insecticide Formulation 2040
References 2042
Insecticide Resistance 2043
References 2044
Insecticides 2045
Definitions 2045
Pesticide 2045
Pest 2045
Active Ingredient 2046
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) 2046
Lethal Dose Value 2046
Exposure Type 2046
Formulation 2046
Restricted Use Pesticide 2046
Mode of Action 2046
Insecticide Toxicity Categories 2046
Pesticide Nomenclature 2047
Formulations 2047
Emulsifiable Concentrates (ec) 2048
Water-Miscible Liquids (Includes Water-Soluble Concentrates [WSC], Liquids [L], Soluble Concentrates [SC], and Solutions [S 2048
Water-Soluble Powders (sp) 2048
Wettable Powders (wp) 2048
Oil Solutions 2048
Flowables (F) 2048
Ultralow-Volume (ulv) 2048
Dusts (D) 2048
Granular (G) 2049
Aerosols 2049
Fumigants 2049
Baits 2049
Controlled-Release (cr) 2049
Insecticides 2049
Organochlorines 2049
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (ddt) Group 2049
Chlorinated Cyclics 2050
Organophosphates 2050
Carbamates 2052
Formamidines 2052
Pyrethroids 2053
Insect Growth Regulators 2053
Juvenoids 2053
Ecdysone Agonists 2053
Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (CSI) 2054
Pyridine Azomethines 2054
Chloronicotinyls 2054
Inhibitors of Cellular Respiration 2054
Pyrroles 2054
Amidinohydrazones 2054
Halogenated Alkyl Sulphonamides 2055
Sulfluryl Fluoride 2055
Additional Inhibitors of Cellular Respiration 2055
Avermectins 2055
Phenylpyrazoles 2055
Miscellaneous/Botanicals 2055
Toxicity 2056
References 2057
Insecticide Toxicity 2057
References 2058
Insectivore 2058
Insectivorous Plants 2059
Nepenthaceae: Nepenthes 2059
Sarraceniaceae: Darlingtonia, Heliamphora, and Sarracenia 2060
Cephalotaceae: Cephalotus 2062
Bromeliaceae: Brocchinia and Catopsis 2062
Byblidaceae: Byblis 2063
Roridulaceae: Roridula 2063
Dioncophyllaceae: Triphyophyllum 2064
Drosophyllaceae: Drosophyllum 2064
Droseraceae: Aldrovanda, Dionaea, and Drosera 2064
Lentibulariaceae: Genlisea, Pinguicula, and Utricularia 2065
Conclusion 2067
References 2071
Insectoverdin 2072
Insects as Aphrodisiacs 2072
References 2074
Insight Learning 2074
Inspection 2076
Instar 2076
Instinct 2076
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 2076
Cultural Control 2077
Biological Control 2077
Mechanical Control 2077
Chemical Control with Enticements or Deterrents 2078
Chemical Control with Pesticides 2078
Regulatory Control 2078
References 2078
Integument 2078
Integument: Structure and Function 2079
Epicuticle 2079
Exocuticle 2080
Mesocuticle 2080
Endocuticle 2081
Pore Canals and Wax Channels 2081
Epidermal Cells 2081
References 2083
Intercalary Vein 2083
Intercropping 2084
Interference Competition 2084
Intergenic Region 2084
Internal Anatomy of Insects 2084
Muscular System 2084
Fat Body 2084
Digestive System 2085
Circulatory System 2086
Respiratory (Ventilatory) System 2086
Nervous System 2086
Glandular Systems 2087
Reproductive System 2088
Interneurons 2088
Interspecific Competition 2088
Interstitial 2088
Intertidal Dwarf Bugs 2088
Intima 2088
Intraspecific Competition 2088
Intrinsic Rate of Increase 2088
Introduced 2088
Introgression 2088
Intron 2088
Inundative Biological Control 2089
Invader 2089
Invasion Area 2089
Invasive Species 2089
Some Terminology 2089
Why Invasive Species Are So Abundant 2090
Enemy Release 2090
Competitive Advantage 2090
Novelty 2090
Preadaptation 2091
Pathways of Dispersal 2091
Ecological and Taxonomic Patterns of Dispersal 2093
Establishment and Spread 2095
Frequency of Inoculation 2097
Climatic Suitability of the New Environment 2097
Biological Characteristics of the New Environment 2097
Biological Characteristics of the Potential Invaders 2097
Latency 2099
Impacts 2100
High-Profile Pests 2100
Cumulative Effects 2100
Increased Environmental Awareness 2100
Risk Assessment and Quarantines 2102
Production Management Techniques 2103
Pre-border Clearance 2103
Disinfestation 2103
Border Treatments 2103
Restricted Distribution of Commodities 2103
Eradication 2103
Risk Mitigation for Avocado: An Example 2103
Field Survey 2104
Trapping 2104
Sanitation 2104
Host Resistance 2104
Post-harvest Safeguards 2104
Phenology 2104
Port of Arrival Inspection 2104
Limited Distribution 2104
References 2104
Invasive 2105
Inversion 2105
Invertebrates 2105
Inverted Copulation 2105
Lepidoptera 2105
Coleoptera 2108
Conclusion 2108
References 2108
In Vitro 2108
In Vivo 2108
IPM 2108
Iridescent Virus Disease 2109
Iridoviruses 2109
References 2110
Ironclad Beetles 2110
Ironomyiidae 2110
Ischnopsyllidae 2110
Island Biogeography 2111
Iso-Amyl Acetate 2111
Isonychiidae 2111
Isoptera 2111
Isotomidae 2111
Isozyme 2111
Issidae 2111
Iteroparous 2111
Ithonidae 2111
Ithycerid Beetles 2111
Ithyceridae 2111
fulltext_10.pdf 2113
Jacquelin Du Val, Pierre Nicolas Camille 2113
Reference 2113
Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 2113
References 2115
Japanese Encephalitis 2115
References 2117
Japygidae 2117
Jeannel, René 2118
Reference 2118
Jerusalem Crickets (Orthoptera: Stenopelmatidae) 2118
Origin of Common Name 2119
Determination of the Adult Stage 2119
Karyotype 2119
Life Cycle 2119
Ecology 2121
Drumming and Communication 2121
Mating 2122
Systematics 2124
Endangered Species 2125
References 2125
Jewel Beetles 2125
Jewel Bugs 2125
Jewel Wasp, Nasonia vitripennis (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) 2125
References 2128
Johannsen, Oskar Augustus 2128
Reference 2128
JohnstonŁs Organ 2129
Joppeicidae 2129
Jordan, Heinrich Ernst Karl 2129
Reference 2129
Jugal Lobe 2129
Jugal Veins 2130
Juglar-Horned Beetles 2130
Jugum 2130
Jumping Spiders (Class Arachnida, Order Araneae, Family Salticidae) 2130
References 2132
June Beetles, Phyllophaga spp (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae: Melolonthini) 2133
References 2134
Jumping Genes 2134
Jurassic Period 2135
Juvenile 2135
Juvenile Hormone 2135
References 2137
Juvenoid 2138
fulltext_11.pdf 2139
Kairomone 2139
Kala-Azar 2139
Kalotermitidae 2139
Kaolin 2139
Kaolin-Based Particle Films for Arthropod Control 2139
Development of Particle Film Technology 2140
Action of Particle Films on Arthropods 2141
Particle Film Applications for Arthropod Pest Control 2142
Multi-Functionality of Particle Films 2143
References 2144
Kaszab, Zoltán 2144
References 2144
Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) 2144
References 2147
Kaufmann Effect 2147
References 2147
Kauri Moths (Lepidoptera: Agathiphagidae) 2147
References 2147
Ked 2147
Keel 2148
Kellogg, Vernon Lyman 2148
References 2148
Kennedy, John S 2148
Reference 2148
Kermesidae 2148
Keroplatidae 2148
Kershaw, John Crampton Wilkinson 2149
References 2151
Kerriidae 2151
Kevan, Douglas Keith Mcewan 2151
References 2151
Key Factor 2151
Key Pests 2152
Keystone Species 2152
Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) 2152
Damage 2153
Management 2153
References 2154
Kiesenwetter, Ernst August Hellmuth Von 2154
References 2154
King Crickets and Wetas 2154
Kinnaridae 2154
Kin Selection 2154
Kinesis (pl., kineses) 2154
Kirby, William 2155
References 2155
Kissing Bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae) 2155
References 2156
Klee, Waldemar 2156
Reference 2157
Knipling, Edward Fred 2157
Reference 2157
Knockdown 2157
Koch's Postulates 2157
Koinobiont 2157
Koebele, Albert 2157
References 2158
Kraatz, Ernst Gustav 2158
Reference 2158
Kring, James Burton 2158
Reference 2159
K-Strategists 2159
Kyasanur Forest Disease 2159
fulltext_12.pdf 2161
Labellum 2161
Labial Glands 2161
Labial Palpi 2161
Labiduridae 2161
Labiidae 2161
Labium 2161
Laboubeniales 2161
References 2162
Labrum 2162
Lace Bugs (Hemiptera: Tingidae) 2163
Diagnosis 2163
Biology 2164
Economic importance 2165
References 2166
Lacewings, Antlions and Mantispids (Neuroptera) 2166
References 2174
Lachesillidae 2174
Lacinia 2174
Lackey Moths 2174
Lacquers and Dyes From Insects 2174
Some Basic Terminology of Dyes and Finishes 2175
Production and Use of Insect Dyes and Lacquers 2176
References 2181
La Crosse Encephalitis 2181
The Virus Transmission Cycle 2182
Symptomology and Treatment 2183
Preventing Infection 2183
References 2183
Lac Scales 2183
Lacturidae 2184
Ladybird Beetles (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera) 2184
Classification 2184
Description 2185
Life Cycle and Behavior 2185
Food 2185
Pest Species ... Feeding on Plants 2185
Innocuous Species ... Feeding on Mildews 2186
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Mites 2186
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Whiteflies 2186
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Cottonycushion Scale 2186
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Mealybugs 2186
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Armored Scale Insects 2187
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Scale Insects 2187
Predatory Species ... Feeding on Aphids 2187
Alternative Food 2188
Natural Enemies 2188
Use of Ladybirds in Biological Control 2188
Commercial Availability 2193
The Downside of Ladybirds 2194
References 2194
Laemobothriidae 2195
Laemophloeidae 2195
Lagenidium giganteum 2195
Lag Phase 2196
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 2196
References 2196
Lamella 2197
Lamellate 2197
Lampyridae 2197
Lanceolate 2197
Lance-Wing Moths (Lepidoptera: Pterolonchidae) 2197
References 2197
Languriidae 2197
Lappet Moths (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) 2197
References 2198
Large Cabbage White Butterfly, Pieris brasicae (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) 2198
Life history 2198
Damage 2199
Management 2199
References 2200
Large Caddisflies 2200
Large-Legged Thrips 2200
Large Milkweed Bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) 2200
References 2203
Larger Grain Borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) 2203
Biology, Ecology and Damage Potential 2204
Conventional Control Strategies 2204
Classical Biological Control 2205
References 2206
Largidae 2206
Larva 2206
Larvicide 2206
Larviform 2206
Larviporous 2206
Lasiocampidae 2206
Lasiochilidae 2206
Latent Infection 2206
Latent Learning 2206
Lateral Oviduct 2207
Lathridiidae 2207
Latreille, Pierre André 2207
References 2208
Lauxaniid Flies 2208
Lauxaniidae 2208
LC50 2208
LD50 2208
Lea, Arthur Mills 2208
Reference 2209
Lea, H Arnold 2209
Reference 2209
Leaching 2209
Leaf Beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 2209
Classification 2210
Bruchinae 2211
Donaciinae 2211
Criocerinae 2212
Hispinae 2212
Chrysomelinae 2212
Galerucinae 2212
Eumolpinae 2213
Lamprosomatinae 2213
Cryptocephalinae 2213
Chrysomelidae and Pest Management 2214
References 2214
Leaf Blotch Miners 2214
Leafcutter Moths (Lepidoptera: Incurvariidae) 2214
References 2215
Leaf-Cutting Ants (Formicidae: Myrmicinae: Attini) 2215
The Colony 2215
The Queen 2216
The Workers 2216
Winged Sexual Individuals 2216
The Super-Organism 2216
The Uninvited Guests 2217
The Nest 2217
Atta Nests 2217
The Nests of Acromyrmex and Trachymyrmex 2217
The Life Cycle 2217
Reproduction 2217
The Birth of a Colony 2218
The Life Cycle of a Worker 2218
The Life Cycle of a Colony 2219
Communication 2219
Pheromones 2219
Alarm Pheromones 2219
Recruitment Pheromone 2219
Territorial Pheromones 2220
Individual Recognition 2220
Other Pheromones 2220
Visual Communication 2220
Communication by Sound 2220
Trophalaxis and Antennal Contacts 2220
Foraging 2220
The Decision Making System 2221
Orientation 2221
Defense 2221
Ecology 2222
Control of Leaf-Cutting Ants 2222
References 2222
Anchor 259 2224
Life History and Habits 2225
Anchor 261 2226
Economic Importance 2226
Anchor 263 2226
Leaf-Footed Bugs 2224
Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 2224
References 2226
Anchor 265 2226
Leafcutting Bees 2227
Anchor 267 2227
Biology and Economic Importance 2227
Anchor 269 2227
Leaf Mines 2229
Anchor 271 2229
Diagnosis and Classification 2231
Anchor 273 2233
Leafminer Moths (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) 2233
Anchor 275 2233
Leafminers 2233
Anchor 277 2235
Leafroller Moths (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 2235
Anchor 279 2236
Leaf-Rolling Crickets 2236
Anchor 281 2237
Leaf-Rolling Weevils 2237
Anchor 283 2237
What is Learning and How Does an Animal Learn? 2237
Anchor 285 2238
When Should Insects Learn? 2240
Anchor 287 2241
Can Learning Evolve? 2242
Anchor 289 2242
References 2243
Anchor 291 2243
Learning and Development: Brain RNA Synthesis and the Retention of Learning Through Metamorphosis in Holometabolous Insects 2244
Anchor 293 2245
Learning, Experience, and Brain Morphology 2248
Anchor 295 2249
References 2250
Anchor 297 2250
Lecanicillium 2250
Anchor 299 2251
Lecanodiaspididae 2251
Anchor 301 2251
Leconte, John Lawrence 2251
Anchor 303 2252
Leech, Hugh Bosdin 2252
Anchor 305 2252
Lefroy, Harold Maxwell 2253
Anchor 307 2253
Anchor 309 2256
Running and Jumping Legs 2256
Anchor 311 2256
Raptorial Legs 2256
Anchor 313 2257
Legs of Hexapods 2253
References 2257
Anchor 315 2257
Leishmaniasis 2257
Anchor 317 2258
Mechanisms that Promote Parasite Persistence 2259
Anchor 319 2259
Immune Evasion by Limitation of Infected Cell Recognition 2260
Anchor 321 2260
Lek 2261
Anchor 323 2261
Leng, Charles William 2261
Anchor 325 2261
Lentic Community 2261
Anchor 327 2261
Lepeletier, Amédée Louis Michel 2261
Anchor 329 2262
Lepidopsocidae 2262
Anchor 331 2262
Lepidostomatidae 2262
Anchor 333 2262
Lepismatidae 2262
Anchor 335 2262
Leptophlebiidae 2262
Anchor 337 2262
Leptopsyllidae 2262
Anchor 339 2262
Lerp 2262
Anchor 341 2262
Lesion 2263
Anchor 343 2263
Description 2263
Anchor 345 2263
Economic Importance 2263
Anchor 347 2263
References 2264
Anchor 349 2264
Lesser Mealworm, Aphitobius diaperinus Panzer (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 2264
Anchor 351 2264
Lestobiosis 2264
Anchor 353 2264
Lethal Yellowing of Coconut Palms 2264
Anchor 355 2264
Life History 2264
Anchor 357 2266
Management 2266
Anchor 359 2267
Leucospidae 2267
Anchor 361 2267
Libellulidae 2267
Anchor 363 2267
Lice 2267
Anchor 365 2267
Life History 2267
Anchor 367 2267
References 2268
Anchor 369 2268
Lignicolous 2268
Anchor 371 2268
Limacodidae 2269
Anchor 373 2269
Limnephidae 2269
Anchor 375 2269
Limoniidae 2269
Anchor 377 2269
References 2269
Anchor 379 2270
Lingula 2270
Anchor 381 2270
References 2270
Anchor 383 2270
Linsley, Earle Gorton 2270
Anchor 385 2271
Liopteriidae 2271
Anchor 387 2271
Liposcelidae 2271
Anchor 389 2271
Entomologist, Writer, or A Little of Both? 2272
Anchor 391 2273
Strong Images 2273
Anchor 393 2274
A Full Circle 2274
Anchor 395 2275
Litter 2275
Anchor 397 2275
References 2276
Anchor 399 2276
Littoral Zone 2276
Anchor 401 2276
Lock and Key Hypothesis 2277
Anchor 403 2277
Skeletal Muscle Structure and Physiology 2277
Anchor 405 2279
Neural Control of Muscles 2280
Anchor 407 2280
Flight in Dragonflies, Damselflies, and a Few Other Groups of Insects 2282
Anchor 409 2283
Lift Produced by the Motion of the Wings 2283
Anchor 411 2284
References 2285
Anchor 413 2285
Locust Borer, Megacyllene robiniae (Forster) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 2285
Anchor 415 2285
Life Cycle 2286
Anchor 417 2288
Ecological Overview 2288
Anchor 419 2289
Lodging 2289
Anchor 421 2289
References 2289
Anchor 423 2289
Logistic Model 2289
Anchor 425 2289
Loiasis 2290
Anchor 427 2290
Lonchaeidae 2290
Anchor 429 2290
Lone Star Tick, Amblyomma americanum Linnaeus (Acari: Ixodidae) 2290
Anchor 431 2290
Longhorned Fairy Moths (Lepidoptera: Adelidae) 2290
Anchor 433 2291
Longhorned Grasshoppers 2291
Anchor 435 2291
External Morphology 2291
Anchor 437 2291
Habitats and Food 2292
Anchor 439 2294
Reproduction 2294
Anchor 441 2295
Economic and Ecological Importance 2295
Anchor 443 2295
Longitudinal Veins 2296
Anchor 445 2296
Distinguishing Characters and Relationships 2296
Anchor 447 2297
Morphology 2297
Anchor 449 2299
Feeding Ecology and Economic Importance 2304
Anchor 451 2304
References 2304
Anchor 453 2305
Long-Tailed Burnet Moths (Lepidoptera: Himantopteridae) 2305
Anchor 455 2306
Long-Toed Water Beetles 2306
Anchor 457 2306
Lophocoronidae 2306
Anchor 459 2306
Lorguin, Pierre Joseph Michel 2306
Anchor 461 2306
Lotic Community 2306
Anchor 463 2306
Louse 2306
Anchor 465 2307
Lovebug, Plecia nearctica Hardy (Diptera: Bibionidae) 2307
Anchor 467 2307
Lovebug Myths 2310
Anchor 469 2310
University of Florida Researchers Genetically Engineered Lovebugs to Kill Mosquitoes 2310
Anchor 471 2310
Dispersing Lovebugs Move Great Distances and are Attracted to Homes 2311
Anchor 473 2311
The Body Fluids of Lovebugs are Acidic and Immediately Dissolve Automobile Paint 2311
Anchor 475 2311
Insecticides are Effective in Controlling Lovebugs 2312
Anchor 477 2312
References 2312
Anchor 479 2313
Loxoscelism 2313
Anchor 481 2313
Lucanidae 2313
Anchor 483 2313
Reference 2313
Anchor 485 2313
Lutrochidae 2313
Anchor 487 2314
Lycidae 2314
Anchor 489 2314
Lygaeidae 2314
Anchor 491 2314
Lygus Bugs, Lygus spp (Hemiptera: Miridae) 2314
Anchor 493 2314
Lyme Borreliosis 2314
Anchor 495 2314
Etiology 2315
Anchor 497 2315
Emergence, Expansion and Control of Lyme Disease 2316
Anchor 499 2317
Lyme Disease 2317
Anchor 501 2317
Lyonetiidae 2317
Anchor 503 2317
References 2318
Anchor 505 2318
fulltext_13.pdf 2319
Machadorythidae 2319
Machaerotidae 2319
Machilidae 2319
Mackenzie Globular Springtails 2319
Mackenziellidae 2319
Macleay (Sir) William John 2319
References 2320
Macquart, Pierre Justin Marie 2320
Reference 2320
Macrofauna 2320
Macropsyllidae 2320
Macropterous 2320
Macroveliidae 2320
Maculate 2320
Maggot 2320
Maggot Therapy 2321
References 2322
Mahogany Pests and Their Management 2322
Hypsipyla spp (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae: Phycitinae) 2323
Mahogany Webworm, Macalla thyrsisalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae: Epipaschiinae) 2326
Mahogany Leafminer, Phyllocnistis meliacella Becker (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) 2327
Mahogany Bark Weevil, Copturus floridanus (Fall) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2328
West Indies Mahogany Scale, Conchaspis cordiae Mamet (Hemiptera: Conchaspididae) 2329
Other Insects 2329
References 2329
Maindroniide 2330
Maize (Corn) Pests and Their Management 2330
Stem Borers 2331
Rootworms 2333
Corn Earworms 2333
Armyworms 2333
Cutworms 2334
Aphids, Leafhoppers and Delphacids 2334
Mites 2334
Other Pests 2334
Pest Management in Maize 2335
References 2336
Major Worker 2336
Malacopsyllidea 2336
Malaise Trap 2337
Malaria 2337
References 2339
Malaya Disease 2339
Malcidae 2339
Malignant Jaundice 2340
Mallis, Arnold 2340
Reference 2340
Mallophaga 2340
Malpighian Tubules 2340
Mammal Chewing Lice 2341
Mammilla (pl., mammillae) 2341
Management of Insect-Vectored Pathogens of Plants 2341
Chemical Control 2341
Biological Control 2341
Host Plant Resistance 2342
Cultural Control 2342
Regulatory Measures 2343
Integrated Management 2344
References 2344
Mandible 2345
Mandibular Glands 2345
Mandibulate 2345
Mandibulate Archaic Moths (Lepidoptera: Micropterigidae) 2345
References 2345
Mange 2345
Mango Mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens Williams (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) 2345
Morphology and Biology 2346
Damage 2346
Control Options 2346
The Solution: Biological Control 2346
References 2347
Manicapsocidae 2348
Manitoba Trap 2348
Mann, William M 2348
Reference 2348
Mannerheim, Carl Gustav Von 2348
References 2348
Manotidae 2348
Mantidae 2348
Mantidflies (Neuroptera: Mantispidae) 2349
References 2351
Mantids 2352
Mantispidae 2352
Mantodea 2352
Mantoididae 2352
Mantophasmatidae 2352
Many-Plumed Moths (Lepidoptera: Alucitidae) 2352
References 2352
March Flies 2353
Margarodidae 2353
Marginal Cells 2353
Marginal Vein 2353
Marginidae 2353
Marine Bugs 2353
Marine Insects and the Sea-Skater Halobates (Hemiptera: Gerridae) 2353
Surviving the Marine Environment 2353
Sea-skaters, Halobates spp 2354
General Biology 2356
References 2356
Mariner 2356
Marker (DNA Marker) 2356
Marker (Genetic) 2357
Marking Insects for Studying Ecology and Behavior 2357
Visually Detected Markers 2357
Rubidium 2358
Radiotracers 2358
Dipping and Painting 2360
Disc and Wire Attachments 2360
Ingestion 2360
Water Culture 2360
Trans-life Stage Transmission 2360
Neutron Activation Analysis 2361
Carbohydrate Profiling 2362
Immunoglobulin 2362
References 2362
Marking Pheromones 2362
References 2364
Marlatt, Charles Lester 2364
Reference 2364
Marsh Beetles 2365
Marsh Flies 2365
Marsh Treaders 2365
Marsupial Chewing Lice 2365
Marsupial Lice 2365
Marx, George 2365
Reference 2365
Masked Chafers, Cyclocephala spp (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 2365
Mason Wasps 2365
Mass Provisioning 2365
Mass Rearing of Natural Enemies 2365
References 2368
Masters, George 2369
Reference 2369
Mastotermitidae 2369
Maternally Inherited 2369
Matheson, Robert 2369
Reference 2370
Mating Disruption 2370
Matsumura, Shonen 2370
Reference 2370
Maxilla 2370
Maxillary Palp (or palpus; pl., maxillary palpi) 2370
Maximum Parsimony Methods 2370
May Beetles 2370
Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) 2371
Family Ameletidae (Ameletid Minnow Mayflies) 2374
Family Baetidae (Small Minnow Mayflies) 2374
Family Caenidae (Small Squaregill Mayflies) 2374
Family Ephemeridae (Common Burrower Mayflies) 2374
Family Ephemerellidae (Spiny Crawler Mayflies) 2374
Family Heptageniidae (Flatheaded Mayflies) 2375
Family Isonychiidae (Brushlegged Mayflies) 2375
Family Leptohyphidae (Little Stout Crawler Mayflies) 2375
Family Leptophlebiidae (Pronggilled Mayflies) 2375
Family Siphlonuridae (Primitive Minnow Mayflies) 2375
References 2375
McDunnough, James Halliday 2376
Reference 2376
McGlashan, Charles Fayette 2376
Reference 2376
McPhail Trap 2376
Meadow and Coneheaded Grasshoppers 2376
Mealworms 2377
Mealybugs 2377
Mean-Variance Model 2377
Measuring Worm Moths 2377
Mechanical Control 2377
Mechanical Protection of Humans from Arthropod Attacks and Bites 2377
Environmental Design 2377
Protective Clothing and Bed Nets 2378
Arthropod Behavior and Protection 2378
Human Motivation 2379
References 2380
Mechanical Transmission 2381
Meconium 2381
Mecoptera 2381
Media 2381
Media Workers 2381
Median 2381
Median Furrow 2381
Mediocubital 2381
Mediterranean Burnet Moths (Lepidoptera: Heterogynidae) 2381
References 2382
Mediterranean Flannel Moths (Lepidoptera: Somabrachyidae) 2382
References 2382
Mediterranean Flour Moth, ŁEphestia kuhniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)Ž 2382
Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 2382
Origin and Geographical Distribution 2383
Morphology 2383
Hosts and Economic Importance 2384
Biology 2384
Control 2385
References 2385
Mediterranean Spotted Fever 2386
Mediterranean Theileriosis 2386
Medocostidae 2386
Meenoplidae 2386
Megachilidae 2386
Megafauna 2386
Megalodontidae 2386
Megalopodid Beetles 2386
Megalopodidae 2386
Megaloptera 2386
Megalopygidae 2387
Megalyridae 2387
Megamerinidae 2387
Megapodagrionidae 2387
Megarididae 2387
Megaspilidae 2387
Meigen, Johann Wilhelm 2387
Reference 2388
Meinertellidae 2388
Meiosis 2388
Meiotic Drive in Insects 2388
Meiotic Drive as a Pest Management Tool? 2389
Hybrid Sterility and Meiotic Drive 2389
References 2389
Melander, Axel Leonard 2390
Reference 2390
Melandryidae 2390
Melanothripidae 2390
Melissococcus pluton (Bacteria) 2390
Melittidae 2390
Melittin 2390
Melittology 2390
Melittophile 2390
Melizoderidae 2390
Mellanby, Kenneth 2391
Reference 2391
Mellinidae 2391
Meloidae 2391
Melon Aphid, Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 2391
Systematics and Biology 2392
Common Names 2392
Description 2392
Genetics 2392
Host Range and Utilization 2393
Population Growth 2393
Nutrition 2393
Abiotic Environment 2394
Production of Winged Aphids (Alates) 2394
Behavior 2395
Flight 2395
Light 2395
Host Plant 2395
Feeding 2395
Egg Laying 2395
Biotic Interactions 2396
Virus Transmission 2396
Mortality 2396
References 2396
Melon Fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 2396
Life History 2397
Damage 2398
Management 2398
References 2399
Melon Thrips, Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) 2399
Life History 2399
Damage 2400
Management 2400
References 2401
Melonworm, Diaphania hyalinata Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 2401
Life History 2401
Damage 2402
Management 2403
References 2403
Melsheimer, Frederick Valentine 2403
Reference 2403
Melyridae 2403
Membracidae 2404
Membrane 2404
Ménétriés, Edouard 2404
Reference 2404
Mengenillidae 2404
Menoponidae 2404
Mentum 2404
Meridic Diet 2404
Meristem 2404
Meroistic Ovaries 2404
Meropeidae 2405
Merothripidae 2405
Mesadene (pl., mesadenia) 2405
Mesenteron 2405
Mesepimeron 2405
Mesepisternum 2405
Meson 2405
Mesonotum 2405
Mesopleuron 2405
Mesopsocidae 2405
Mesoscutellum 2405
Mesothorax 2405
Mesoveliidae 2406
Messenger RNA (mRNA) 2406
Metabolism of Insect Cuticular Lipids 2406
Methodology 2408
References 2409
Metallic Wood-Boring Beetles 2409
Metallyticidae 2409
Metalmark Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae) 2409
Morphology 2410
Diversity and Biogeography 2410
Adult Ecology 2410
Immature Stages and Myrmecophily 2412
References 2413
Metalmark Moths (Lepidoptera: Choreutidae) 2413
References 2413
Metamorphosis 2414
Evolution 2414
Morphology and Physiology 2414
Hormonal Control 2415
Genes and Metamorphosis 2416
Regulatory Genes 2416
Effector Genes 2416
References 2418
Metanotum 2418
Metarbelidae 2418
Metarhizium 2418
References 2420
Metatarsus 2421
Metatentorium (pl., metatentoria) 2421
Metathorax 2421
Metcalf, Clell Lee 2421
Reference 2421
Metcalf, Zeno Payne 2421
Reference 2422
Methodology 2422
Methods for Measuring Crop Losses by Insects 2422
Observation of Natural Populations 2422
Modification of Existing Populations 2423
Creating Artificial Populations 2424
Simulated Damage 2424
Natural Enemies and Crop Loss Assessment 2426
General 2427
References 2427
Metretopodidae 2428
Meyrick, Edward 2428
References 2428
Mexican Bean Beetle, Epilachna varivestris Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) 2428
Host Plants 2428
Natural Mortality Factors 2429
Life Cycle and Description 2429
Egg 2429
Larva 2429
Pupa 2430
Adult 2430
Damage 2430
Management 2430
References 2431
Mexican Fruit Fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 2431
Microbial Control of Insects 2431
Advantages and Disadvantages of Entomopathogens for Insect Control 2431
Advantages 2431
Disadvantages 2431
Entomopathogens Commonly Used for Microbial Control 2432
Bacteria 2432
Viruses 2434
Fungi 2435
Nematodes 2436
General Considerations 2436
References 2437
Microbial Control of Medically Important Insects 2437
References 2441
Microbial Pesticide 2441
Microbiota 2441
Microbivores 2441
Microcaddisflies 2442
Micrococcidae 2442
Microcoryphia 2442
Microdon spp (Diptera: Syrphidae) 2442
References 2443
Microencapsulation 2443
Microfauna 2443
Micromalthidae 2444
Micropezidae 2444
Microphysidae 2444
Micropterigidae 2444
Micropterous 2444
Micropyle 2444
Microspines 2444
Microsporidae 2444
Microsporidia (Phylum Microsporida) 2444
References 2447
Microsporidiosis 2447
Microthoraciidae 2447
Microtrichia 2447
Middorsal 2447
Midges 2447
Midges as Human Food 2448
References 2449
Midgut 2449
Midgut and Insect Pathogens 2450
References 2451
Migration 2451
Life History 2452
Damage 2455
Management 2456
References 2457
Milichiid Flies 2458
Milichiidae 2458
Milk Gland 2458
Milkweed Butterflies 2458
Milky Disease of Scarabs 2458
Miller, David 2458
Reference 2458
Miller Moths 2458
Millipedes (Class Diplopoda) 2459
Classification 2459
Life History 2460
Ecology 2460
References 2461
Mimallonidae 2461
Mimicry 2461
Batesian Mimicry 2462
Müllerian Mimicry 2463
Aggressive Mimicry 2464
Wasmannian Mimicry 2464
References 2465
Mineral Oil 2465
Miniature Ghost Moths (Lepidoptera: Palaeosetidae) 2465
References 2465
Minima 2465
Minor Workers 2466
Minute Bark Beetles 2466
Minute Black Scavenger Flies 2466
Minute Bog Beetles 2466
Minute Brown Scavenger Beetles 2466
Minute Fungus Beetles 2466
Minute Marsh-Loving Beetles 2466
Minute Moss Beetles 2466
Minute Pirate Bugs (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) 2466
Classification and Distribution of the Anthocoridae 2466
Family Anthocoridae ... Tribe Almeidini 2467
Anthocorini 2467
Blaptostethini 2467
Dufouriellini 2467
Oriini 2467
Scolopini 2469
Xylocorini 2469
Family Lasiochilidae 2469
Family Lyctocoridae 2469
Morphology 2469
Biology and Life History 2471
Reproduction, Mating, and the Paragenital System 2472
Economic Importance 2474
References 2475
Minute Tree-Fungus Beetles 2476
Miridae 2476
Mite Pests of Crops in Asia 2476
References 2477
Mites (Acari) 2477
Evolution and Diversity of Mites 2477
Generalized Life History 2478
Classification: The Orders of Mites 2478
Anactinotrichida 2478
Oplioacarida 2480
Holothyrida 2481
Ixodida 2481
Gamasida 2482
Actinotrichida 2483
Actinedida 2483
Oribatida 2485
Acaridida 2487
Dispersion of Mites 2489
External Anatomy 2489
Gnathosoma 2490
Idiosoma 2492
Legs 2492
Integument 2493
Physiology of Mites 2495
Glands 2495
Muscles 2495
Fat Body 2496
Circulatory System 2496
Respiratory System 2496
Digestive System 2497
Excretory System and Osmoregulation 2497
Nervous and Sensory System 2498
Reproductive System 2499
Economic Importance 2499
Skin Parasites 2499
Stored Product Pests 2502
House Dust Mites 2503
Pests of Agricultural Crops 2503
Bee Mites 2504
References 2505
Miticide 2505
Mitochondrion, (pl., Mitochondria) 2505
Mitosis 2506
Mixed Infection 2506
MŁLachlan, Robert 2506
Reference 2506
Mnesarchaeidae 2506
Mode of Action 2506
Molannidae 2506
Molar 2506
Mole Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) and Their Biological Control 2506
Larra (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) Imported into Hawaii 2508
Larra (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) Imported into Puerto Rico 2508
Larra (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) Imported into Florida 2508
Ormia depleta (Diptera: Tachinidae) Imported into Florida 2509
Steinernema scapterisci (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) Imported into Florida 2510
Steinernema scapterisci (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) Imported into Puerto Rico 2511
Conclusion for Florida 2511
Conclusion for Other Southeastern States of the USA 2512
Conclusion for Puerto Rico 2512
Conclusion for Eastern Australia, Islands of the Lesser Antilles, and the Dominican Republic 2512
Conclusion for South America 2512
Conclusion for Hawaii 2512
Conclusion for Africa and Southern Asia Including the Philippines and Indonesia 2513
References 2513
Molecular Biology 2513
Molecular Diagnosis 2513
The Species Concept 2514
Molecular Methods for Diagnosis 2514
DNA Barcoding 2517
References 2518
Molecular Genetics 2519
Molecular Phylogeny 2519
Molicutes 2519
Molt 2519
Molting Fluid 2519
Molting Hormone 2519
Mompha Moths (Lepidoptera: Momphidae) 2519
References 2520
Momphidae 2520
Monarch Butterfly, Danaus plexippus L (Lepidoptera: Danaidae) 2520
Monarch Migration 2521
Conservation Concerns 2523
Monarchs Among Other Butterflies 2523
References 2525
Moniliform 2525
Monitoring 2525
Monkey Grasshoppers 2525
Monoclonal Antibody 2525
Monocondylic Articulation or Joint 2525
Monocot 2525
Monoculture 2525
Monoecious 2526
Monogyny 2526
Monomachidae 2526
Monommidae 2526
Monomorphic 2526
Monomorphism 2526
Monophagous 2526
Monophyletic 2526
Monophyletic Group 2526
Monotomidae 2526
Monotypic 2526
Mordellidae 2526
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 2526
References 2527
Moribund 2527
Mormon Cricket, Anabrus simplex Haldeman (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) 2527
Distribution 2527
Host Plants 2527
Natural Enemies 2528
Life Cycle and Description 2528
Egg 2528
Nymph 2529
Adult 2529
Damage 2530
Management 2530
Sampling 2530
Insecticides 2530
Cultural Practices 2530
References 2530
Morphogenesis 2530
Morphology 2530
Morphotype 2531
Morrison, Herbert Knowles 2531
Reference 2531
Morse, Albert Pitts 2531
References 2531
Mortality Rate 2531
Mosquito Larval Feeding Ecology 2531
Mosquito Larval Habitats 2532
Mouthpart Morphology and Feeding Modes 2532
Larval Dietary Components 2533
References 2534
Mosquito Overwintering Ecology 2534
Life Histories 2534
Eco-Physiology and Behavior 2535
References 2536
Mosquito Oviposition 2536
References 2539
Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) 2540
Distribution 2540
Metamorphosis 2540
Morphology and Physiology 2540
Eggs 2540
Larvae 2540
Pupae 2541
Adults 2542
Internal Systems of the Mosquito 2542
Respiratory System 2542
Circulatory System 2543
Digestive System 2543
Nervous System 2543
Reproductive System 2543
Mosquito Behavior 2544
Feeding 2544
Oviposition 2544
Mating 2544
Disease Transmission 2545
Methods of Control 2546
References 2547
Mosquitoes as Vectors of Viral Pathogens 2547
Factors Associated with the Biological Transmission of Arthropod-Borne Viruses 2547
Infection Process 2549
Abortive Midgut Infections 2550
Viral and Vector Genetics Associated with Differences in Midgut Infection 2551
Dissemination from the Midgut 2551
Viral and Mosquito Genetic Basis for Lack of Dissemination 2552
Infection of the Salivary Glands 2553
Vertical Transmission of Arboviruses 2553
Elements of Vectorial Capacity 2554
References 2554
Moss Bugs 2555
Moth Flies 2555
Moths (Lepidoptera: Heterocera) 2555
References 2558
Motile 2558
Motor Neurons 2558
Motschulsky, Victor Ivanovich 2558
References 2558
Mountain Midges 2558
References 2560
Mouth Beard 2561
Mouth Cone 2561
Mouth Hooks 2561
Mouthparts of Hexapods 2561
Chewing Mouthparts 2563
Chewing-Sucking Mouthparts 2563
Piercing-Sucking Mouthparts 2563
Sucking Mouthparts 2565
Siphoning-Sucking Mouthparts 2567
References 2568
Mud Daubers 2568
Mulch 2568
Müller, Johann Friedrich Theodor 2569
Reference 2569
Müller, Josef 2569
Reference 2569
Müllerian Mimicry 2569
Mulluscicide 2569
Mulsant, Etienne 2569
References 2570
Multifunctional Semiochemicals 2570
The Parsimonious Activities of Eclectic Alarm Pheromones 2570
Activity Inhibitors 2570
Cryptic Alarm Pheromones in Solitary Insects 2571
Robbing Agents 2571
Alarm Pheromones as Trail Pheromones 2572
Releasers of Digging Behavior 2572
Antimicrobial Alarm Pheromones 2572
Alarm Pheromones as Attractants 2572
Defensive Allomones as Alarm Pheromones 2573
Sex Pheromones as Parsimonious Agents 2573
Pheromonal Parsimony in the Honey Bee 2573
Defensive Secretions as Sexual Pheromones 2574
A Highly Toxic Anhydride with Pronounced Vesicatory Parsimony 2575
Multifunctional Venom Alkaloids 2576
References 2577
Rhinocyllus conicus Froel (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2578
Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2579
Multiparasitism 2577
Multiple Resistance (to pesticides) 2577
Multivoltine 2577
Mummy 2577
Murine Typhus 2577
Murray Valley Encephalitis 2577
Musapsocidae 2577
Muscardine 2577
Muscid Flies 2577
Muscidae 2578
Muscoid Larva 2578
Mushroom Bodies 2578
Musk Thistle Suppression Using Weevils for Biological Control 2578
References 2580
Mutagen 2580
Mutant 2580
Mutation 2580
Mutillidae 2580
Mutual Interference 2580
Mutualism 2580
Mycangium 2581
Mycelium 2581
Mycetocyte 2581
Mycetome 2581
Mycetophagidae 2581
Mycetophilidae 2581
Mycosis 2581
Mycotoxin 2581
Mycteridae 2581
Mydas Flies 2581
Mydidae 2581
Myerslopiidae 2581
Myiasis 2581
An Entomological Classification of Myiasis 2582
Specific or Obligatory Myiasis 2582
Semi-Specific or Facultative Myiasis 2582
Accidental, Pseudomyiasis or False Myiasis 2582
An Anatomical Classification of Myiasis 2582
Dermal or Subdermal Myiasis 2582
Intermedia Anatomical Position Myiasis 2582
Creeping Myiasis 2583
Ocular Myiasis 2583
Aural Myiasis 2583
Nasal Fossae (nostrils), Mouth, Frontal Sinuses Myiasis and Surface of Brain 2583
Urogenital, Anal and vagin*l Myiasis 2583
Migratory Myiasis 2583
Intestinal Myiasis 2583
Atypical Sanguinivorous Myiasis 2583
Diagnosis 2583
The Taxa Responsible for Myiasis 2584
Family Calliphoridae ... Blowflies or Bluebottle Flies 2584
Family Muscidae ... (Houseflies) 2588
Family Oestridae-(Bot and Warble Flies) 2588
Family Phoridae ... (Scuttle or Humpbacked or Phorid Flies) 2590
Family Sarcophagidae ... (Flesh Flies) 2590
References 2591
Mymaridae 2591
Mymarommatidae 2592
Myndus crudus Van Duzee (Hemiptera: Cixiidae) 2592
Damage and Economic Importance 2592
Management 2594
References 2595
Myofibrils 2595
Myopsocidae 2595
Myriapods 2595
Myrmecodomatia 2595
Myrmecolacidae 2595
Myrmecology 2595
Myrmecomorphy 2596
Signal Properties of Myrmecomorphic Arthropods 2596
Spiders 2596
Insects 2597
Transformational Mimicry 2598
Sexual Dimorphism 2598
Taxonomic and Geographic Distribution of Myrmecomorphy 2598
Adaptive Significance 2598
Batesian Mimicry 2598
Wasmannian Mimicry 2600
Aggressive Mimicry 2600
References 2601
Myrmecophiles 2601
Ecological Categories 2601
Evolutionary Trends 2602
Chemical Communication 2602
Morphological Mimicry 2603
Behavioral Traits 2603
References 2604
Myrmeleontidae 2604
Mystax 2604
Mythicomyiidae 2604
Mythology and Insects 2604
References 2607
Myxomatosis 2607
fulltext_14.pdf 2609
Nabidae 2609
Nagana 2609
Naiad (pl., naiads) 2609
Nairobi Eye 2609
Nairobi Sheep Disease 2609
Nanitic Workers 2609
Nannochoristidae 2609
Naphthalene 2609
Narrow-Waisted Bark Beetles 2610
Narrow-Winged Damselflies 2610
Nasus 2610
Nasute 2610
Natatorial 2610
Native American Culture and Insects 2610
Insects in Mythology 2610
Big Fly (Diptera: Tachinidae) 2611
Cornbug (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) 2611
Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 2611
Butterflies (Lepidoptera) 2611
Spiders (Arthropoda: Arachnida) 2611
Cicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) 2611
Insects as Food: Entomophagy 2613
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 2614
Mormon Crickets (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) 2615
Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) 2615
Shore Flies (Diptera: Ephydridae) 2616
Cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) 2616
Mesquite Beetles (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) 2617
Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 2617
Insects in Art 2617
The Medicinal Properties of Insects 2617
Cicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) 2617
Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae, Gryllacrididae, and Tettigoniidae) 2618
Jerusalem Crickets (Orthoptera: Stenopalmatidae) 2618
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 2618
Hornworms (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) 2618
Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera) 2618
Darkling Beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 2618
Flies (Diptera) 2618
Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) 2618
Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 2618
Velvet Ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) 2618
Wasps (Hymenoptera) 2619
Spiders (Arthropoda: Arachnida) 2619
References 2619
Natural Control 2619
Natural Enemies 2619
Natural Enemies Important in Biological Control 2619
Parasites or Parasitoids? 2619
Categories of Parasitoids 2622
Predators 2624
Pathogens 2628
Nematodes that Attack Insects 2629
References 2631
Natural Enemy Attraction to Plant Volatiles 2631
Plant Volatiles Signal of Beneficial Insects 2631
Parasitoids Learn the Rewards of Host Odor Cues 2632
Adaptive Advantages of Volatile Emissions for Plants 2633
Exploitation of Plant Volatiles in Agriculture 2633
References 2633
Natural Host 2634
Natural Products Used for Insect Control 2634
History of the Use of Natural Products 2635
Natural Products in Current Use 2636
Agricultural Uses 2636
Medically Important Uses 2636
Conclusions 2637
References 2638
Natural Selection 2638
Naucoridae 2638
Naupliform Larva 2638
Nearctic Realm 2638
Necrophagous 2638
Necrosis 2638
Necrophoresis 2638
Nectar Guide 2638
Nectary 2638
Needham, James George 2638
Reference 2639
Neelidae 2639
Neem 2639
References 2641
Negro Bugs 2641
Nematicide 2641
Nematode 2641
Nematode Parasites of Insects 2641
Nematode Associations with Insects 2641
Facultative Parasitism 2641
Obligate Parasitism 2642
Phoresy 2642
Commensalism and Mutualism 2642
Effects of Nematode Parasitism 2642
Evolution of Insect-Nematode Associations 2643
Nematodes Associated with Insects 2643
Order Rhabditida 2643
Order Spirurida 2644
Order Tylenchida 2644
Order Aphelenchida 2646
Order Oxyurida 2646
Order Mermithida 2646
References 2648
Nematomorphs (Nematomorpha: Gordioida: Several Families) 2648
References 2648
Nemestrinidae 2648
Neminidae 2648
Nemonychidae 2649
Nemopteridae 2649
Nemouridae 2649
Neoclassical Biological Control 2649
Neolinognathidae 2649
Neonate 2649
Neopetaliidae 2649
Neophemeridae 2649
Neopseustidae 2649
Neopterous 2649
Neoteinic 2649
Neoteny 2649
Neotheoridae 2649
Neotropical Brown Stink Bug, Euschistus heros (F) (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) 2649
References 2651
Neotropical Realm 2651
References 2652
Nepidae 2653
Nepticulidae 2653
Neriidae 2653
Nervous System 2653
Gross Structure 2653
The Cephalic Ganglia 2653
The Nerve Cord 2654
Embryonic Origin 2655
Histology 2655
The Synapses 2657
The Giant Fibers 2657
The Neuroglia and Nervous Sheath 2657
Function of the Central Nervous System 2658
Larval Nervous System 2659
The Visceral Nervous System 2659
References 2659
Nesameletidae 2659
Nest Odor 2660
Nest Parasitism 2660
Net-Spinning Caddisflies 2660
Net-Winged Beetles 2660
Net-Winged Midges 2660
Neurochaetidae 2660
Neurogenic Flight Muscles 2660
Neurohemal Organ 2660
Neurohormone 2660
Neurological Effects of Insecticides and the Insect Nervous System 2660
Structure of the Insect Nervous System 2661
Function of the Nervous System 2661
The Resting Potential 2661
The Action Potential 2662
Synaptic Transmission 2663
Post-Synaptic Potentials 2664
Integration and Summation 2664
General Neurological Effects of Insecticides 2665
Neurological Target Sites and Specific Neurological Effects of Insecticides 2666
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels 2666
GABA and Glutamate-Gated Chloride Channels 2667
Acetylcholinesterase Enzyme 2667
Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor 2668
Conclusions 2669
References 2669
Neuron 2669
Neuropile 2670
Neuroptera 2670
Neurorthidae 2670
Neurosecretory Cell 2670
Neurotoxin 2671
Neurotransmitter 2671
Net Primary Production 2671
Newell, Wilmon 2671
Reference 2671
Newman, Edward 2671
References 2672
Newsom, Leo Dale 2673
Reference 2673
New Zealand Primitive Moths (Lepidoptera: Mnesarchaeidae) 2673
References 2673
Niche 2673
Niche Differentiation 2673
Niche Overlap 2674
Nidicolous 2674
Nicoletiidae 2674
Night Blooming Plants and Their Insect Pollinators 2674
References 2676
Ninidae 2676
Nitidulidae 2676
Noctuid Moths 2676
Noctuidae 2676
Nocturnal 2676
Nodus 2677
Nogodinidae 2677
Nomenclature 2677
Nomen Conservandum 2677
Nomen Dubium 2677
Nomen Inquirendum 2677
Nomen Novum 2677
Nomen Nudum 2677
Nomen Oblitum 2677
Nomuraea 2677
References 2679
Non-Indigenous 2679
Non-Occluded Virus 2680
Nonpersistent Virus 2680
Nonpreference 2680
North Asian Tick Typhus 2680
Northern Caddisflies 2680
Life History 2680
Damage 2682
Management 2682
References 2683
No-See-Ums 2683
Norticolidae 2683
Nosema apis (Protozoa: Microsporidia) 2683
Nosema locustae (Protozoa: Microsporidia) 2684
Reference 2684
Nosemosis 2684
Nosema Disease 2684
Reference 2685
Nosodendrid Beetles 2685
Nosodendridae 2685
Noteridae 2685
Nothybidae 2685
Notodontidae 2685
Notoligotomidae 2685
Notonectidae 2685
Notonemouridae 2685
Notopleuron 2685
Notoptera 2685
Reference 2686
Notum 2686
Nozzle 2686
Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus 2686
Nucleic Acid 2686
Nucleocapsid 2686
Nucleolus 2686
Nucleoside 2686
Nucleotide 2686
Nucleus 2686
Nulliparous 2686
Numerical Response 2686
Nuptial 2686
Nuptial Flight 2687
Nuptial Gift 2687
Nurse Cells 2687
Nutrient Content of Insects 2687
References 2710
Nutrient Cycling 2710
Nutritional Castration 2710
Nutrition in Insects 2710
Qualitative Nutrition 2711
Amino Acids and Proteins 2711
Carbohydrates 2712
Lipids 2713
Sterols 2713
Fatty Acids 2713
Vitamins 2714
Nucleic Acids 2715
Minerals 2715
Regulation of Nutrient Intake 2715
Nutrient...Allelochemical Interactions 2716
Extreme Foods 2717
Conclusions 2718
References 2718
Nuttalliellidae (Acari) 2718
References 2719
Nycteribiidae 2719
Nygma (pl., nygmata) 2719
References 2722
Nymph 2722
Nymphalidae 2722
Nymphidae 2722
Nymphomyiid Flies 2722
Nymphomyiidae 2723
Nyssonidae 2723
fulltext_15.pdf 2725
Oak Wilt 2725
Oakworms 2725
Obligate Myiasis 2725
Obligate Parasitism 2725
Obliquebanded Leaf Roller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 2725
Obligatory Diapause 2725
Obtect Pupa 2725
Occiput 2725
Occluded Virus 2725
Occult Virus 2726
Ocellus (pl ocelli) 2726
Ochodaeidae 2726
Ochraceous 2727
Ochsenheimeriidae 2727
Ochteridae 2727
Ockham's Razor 2727
Odiniid Flies 2727
Odiniidae 2727
Odonata 2727
Odontoceridae 2727
Oecophoridae 2727
Oedemeridae 2727
Oenocytoids 2727
Oestridae 2727
Oil 2727
Old House Borer, Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 2728
Old World Butterfly Moths (Lepidoptera: Callidulidae) 2728
References 2728
Old World Harvester Termites 2728
Old World Spiny-Winged Moths (Lepidoptera: Eriocottidae) 2728
References 2729
Oleander or Milkweed Aphid, Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 2729
Olfactometer 2729
Oligidic Diet 2729
Oligoneuriidae 2729
Oligophagous 2729
Oligotomidae 2729
Olive Fruit Curculio, Rhynchites cribripennis Desbrochers (Coleoptera: Attelabidae) 2729
References 2730
Olive Fruit Fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (=Dacus oleae) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 2730
References 2733
Olive Knot 2733
Olive Psyllids, Euphyllura spp (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) 2733
References 2734
Omaniidae 2735
Omethridae 2735
Ommatidium (pl ommatidia) 2735
Omnivorous 2735
Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever 2735
Onchocerciasis 2735
References 2737
Onion Maggot, Delia antiqua (Meigen) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) 2737
Life History 2737
Damage 2739
Management 2740
References 2740
Oncopoduridae 2741
Onisciform Larva 2741
Oniscigastridae 2741
Onychiuridae 2741
Oocytes 2741
Oogenesis 2741
Ovary Structure 2741
Major Stages of Oogenesis 2743
Structure of the Mature Egg 2744
Regulation of Oogenesis 2745
References 2745
Oogonia 2745
Oötheca 2745
Operating Characteristic 2745
Operculum (pl. opercula) 2745
Opetiidae 2745
Opisthognathous 2746
Opomyzid Flies 2746
Opomyzidae 2746
Opossum Beetles 2746
Opostegidae 2746
Optic Lobe 2746
Optimal Foraging 2746
Oral Cavity 2747
Oral Filter 2747
Oral Hooks 2747
Oral Vibrissae 2747
Orangedog 2747
Orb 2747
Orbicular 2747
Orbicular Spot 2747
Orchid Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) 2747
References 2750
Orders 2750
Organic 2750
Organic Agriculture 2750
References 2753
Organochlorine 2753
Organophosphate 2753
Oriental Beetle 2753
Oriental Fruit Fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 2754
Life history 2754
Damage 2755
Management 2755
References 2756
Oriental Parnassian Moths (Lepidoptera: Ratardidae) 2756
References 2756
Oriental Realm 2757
Oriental Swallowtail Moths (Lepidoptera: Epicopeiidae) 2757
References 2757
Ormerod, Eleanor Anne 2757
References 2758
Ormyridae 2758
Ornate Pit Scales 2758
Orsodacnid Beetles 2758
Orsodacnidae 2758
Ortheziidae 2758
Orthoptera 2759
Orussidae 2759
Oryctes Virus and Other Nudiviruses 2759
References 2760
Ornate 2760
Osborn, Herbert 2760
References 2761
Osmeterium (pl. osmeteria) 2761
Osmoregulation 2761
Osmosis 2761
Osmylidae 2761
Osten Sacken, CR 2761
References 2762
Ostia 2762
Accessory Pulsatile Hearts 2762
Ostiole 2763
Otitidae 2763
Outbreak 2763
Outbreaks of Insects 2763
Gradient Outbreaks 2764
Eruptive Outbreaks 2766
Management Implications 2767
References 2767
Ovacide 2767
Ovariole 2767
Ovary 2768
Overwintering in Insects 2768
Cues 2769
Where to Overwinter 2770
Location of Sites 2771
Coping with Cold 2772
Cold Hardiness 2772
Overwintering Stages 2773
Clocks 2774
References 2774
Oviduct 2774
Ovipara 2774
Oviparous 2774
Oviposition 2774
Ovipositor 2774
Ovisac 2774
Ovisorption 2775
Ovoviviparous 2775
Ovum (pl ova) 2775
Owlflies 2775
Owlet Moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 2775
References 2775
Oxaeidae 2776
Oxycarenidae 2776
Oxychirotidae 2776
Oxytenidae 2776
fulltext_16.pdf 2777
Pachygronthidae 2777
Pachyneurid Flies 2777
Pachyneuridae 2777
Pachynomidae 2777
Pachytroctidae 2777
Packard, Alpheus Spring 2777
References 2778
Paecilomyces 2778
References 2778
Paederina 2778
Reference 2779
Paederus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Paederinae) 2779
References 2781
Paedogenesis 2782
Paedomorphosis 2782
Paenibacillus 2782
References 2783
Paenibacillus larvae = (Bacillus larvae) Bacteria 2783
Painter, Reginald Henry 2783
Reference 2783
Palaeosetidae 2784
Palaeosetode 2784
Palaephatidae 2784
Palearctic Realm 2784
Paleoentomology 2784
Pale Lice 2784
Paleopterous 2784
Pale Western Cutworm, Agrotis orthogonia (Morrison) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 2784
Palidium 2784
Palindrome 2784
Pallopteridae 2784
Palm Beetles 2784
Palmetto Beetles 2784
Palm Insects 2785
Palms as Hosts of Insects 2785
The Insect Fauna of Palms 2786
Defoliators 2786
Sap-Feeders 2787
Pests of Flowers and Fruits 2788
Bud, Petiole, Stem and Root Borers 2789
Pollinators 2790
References 2790
Palm Moths (Lepidoptera: Agonoxenidae) 2790
References 2791
Palm Scales 2791
Palm, Thure 2791
Reference 2791
Palp (pl, palps) 2791
Palpifer 2791
Palpiger 2791
Palpus (pl, palpi) 2792
Pamphilidae 2792
Pamphiliidae 2792
Panoistic Ovaries 2792
Panorpidae 2792
Panorpodidae 2792
Panthophthalmidae 2792
Panzootic 2792
Paper Wasps 2792
Papilionidae 2792
Papilla (pl, papillae) 2792
Parabiosis 2793
Paradichlorobenzene 2793
Paraglossa 2793
Parajapygidae 2793
Parallel Evolution 2793
Parameres 2793
Paraphrynoveliidae 2793
Paraphyletic 2793
Paraphyletic Group 2793
Parapodium 2793
Paraproct 2793
Parasite 2794
Parasitic Castration 2794
Parasitic Flat Bark Beetles 2794
Parasitic Hymenoptera (Parasitica) 2794
Adult Morphology 2794
Immature Stages 2796
Biology 2797
Biological Control 2799
Fossil Parasitica 2800
References 2800
Parasitic Wood Wasps 2800
Parasitism 2800
References 2806
Parasitization 2806
Parasitoid 2806
Parasitoidism 2807
Parasocial Behavior 2807
Parasporal Body 2807
Paratype 2807
Parental Care In Heteroptera (Hemiptera: Prosorhynche) 2807
Models of Parental Care in the Heteroptera 2807
Origin of Parental Care in Heteroptera 2808
Costs of Parental Care Behavior 2808
Benefits of Parental Care Behavior 2808
Replacement of Parental Care by Other Protective Strategies 2809
Persistence of Maternal Care 2811
Groups That Display Maternal 2811
Care in Heteroptera 2811
Examples of Maternal Care 2811
Tingidae 2811
Coreidae 2812
Cydnidae 2812
Acanthosomatidae 2813
Phloeidae 2813
Tessaratomidae 2813
Paternal Care 2813
Groups That Display Paternal Care 2815
Belostomatidae 2815
Reduviidae 2818
Coreidae 2818
Aradidae 2818
References 2818
Parental Investment 2819
Parietals 2819
Parnassian Moths (Lepidoptera: Pterothysanidae) 2819
References 2819
Paronellidae 2819
Parsimony 2820
Pars Intercerebralis 2820
Parthenogenesis 2820
Parthenogenetic Reproduction 2820
Parvovirus 2820
References 2821
Pass, Bobby Clifton 2821
Reference 2821
Passalidae 2821
Passandridae 2821
Passive Dispersal 2821
Passive Flight 2822
Patagium (pl, patagia) 2822
Patch Dynamics 2822
Patch, Edith Marion 2822
References 2822
Patchy Environment 2822
Patella 2822
Pathogen 2822
Pathogenesis 2823
Pathogenicity 2823
Pathogen Transmission by Arthropods 2823
References 2827
Pathogens of Whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 2827
References 2829
Pathology 2829
Pathotype 2829
Pathway 2829
Patrolling 2829
Patronym 2829
Paurometabolous Development 2829
Paykull, Gustaf 2830
Reference 2830
Pban 2830
PCR 2830
PCR-RFLP 2830
Pea Aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 2830
Life History 2830
Damage 2833
Management 2833
References 2834
Peach Silver Mite, Aculus cornutus Banks (Acarina: Eriophyidae) 2834
Peairs, Leonard Marion 2834
Reference 2834
Pea Leafminer, Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) 2834
References 2836
Pear Decline 2836
Pear Psylla, Cacopsylla pyricola (Foerster) (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) 2836
References 2839
Pebrine 2839
Pecaroecidae 2839
Peccary Lice 2839
Peck, William Dandridge 2839
References 2840
Pecten 2840
Pectinate 2840
Pederin 2840
References 2841
Pedicel 2842
Pedicinidae 2842
Pediculosis 2842
Pediculidae 2842
Pedipalps 2842
Pelagic Community 2842
Pedunculate 2842
Pelecinidae 2843
Pelecinid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Pelecinidae) 2843
Fossil Pelecinids 2843
Ecology and Natural History 2844
Geographic Patterns 2844
References 2845
Pelecorhynchid Flies 2845
Pelecorhynchidae 2845
Peloridiidae 2845
Peltoperlidae 2845
Pemphredonidae 2846
Penis (pl, penes) 2846
Pentatomidae 2846
Penultimate 2846
Pepper Weevil, Anthonomus eugenii Cano (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2846
References 2848
Peradeniidae 2848
Perennial 2848
Pergidae 2848
Pericardial Cells 2848
Pericardial Sinus 2848
Perikaryon (pl, perikarya) 2848
Perilampidae 2849
Perilestidae 2849
Periodical Cicadas, Magicicada spp (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) 2849
Morphology and Classification 2850
Distribution 2850
Species 2850
Broods 2851
Predator Satiation 2852
Juvenile Life History 2852
Nymphal Development 2852
Life Cycle Timing 2852
Emergence and Teneral Period 2854
Adult Life History and Behavior 2855
Chorusing and Mating 2855
Oviposition 2856
Ecology 2856
Control Measures 2857
Fungal Infection by Massospora 2857
Life Cycle Plasticity and Speciation 2857
Evolution of Periodicity 2858
References 2858
Peripsocidae 2858
Periscelidid Flies 2859
Periscelididae 2859
Perissommatidae 2859
Peristome 2859
Peritreme 2859
Peritrophic Membrane 2859
Perlidae 2859
Perlodidae 2859
Peroral 2859
per os 2859
Persistent Virus 2859
Pest Free Area 2859
Pesticide 2859
Pesticide Hormoligosis 2860
References 2862
Pesticide Resistance Management 2862
Research on Resistance
in Arthropods 2862
Resistance Management and IPM 2864
Pesticide-Resistant Natural Enemies 2866
References 2867
Pest Resurgence 2867
Pest Risk Analysis (Assessment) 2867
References 2868
Pests and their Natural Enemies (Parasitoids and/or Predators) in the Middle East 2868
Key insect and mite pests and their determined natural enemies in the Middle East (natural enemies are indented under their h 2869
Alliaceae 2869
Garlic 2869
Onion 2869
Anacardiaceae 2869
Pistachio Tree 2869
Arecaceae/Palmae 2870
Palm 2870
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) 2870
Cabbage 2870
Cauliflower 2871
Kohlrabi (Brassica oleraceae var caularapa) 2871
Chenopodiaceae 2871
Sugarbeet 2871
Cucurbitaceae 2871
Cucumber 2871
Melon 2871
Squash 2872
Watermelon 2872
fa*gaceae 2872
Cork oak 2872
Oak 2872
Gramineae/Poaceae 2872
Barley 2872
Corn 2873
Rice 2873
Sorghum 2873
Sugarcane 2873
Wheat 2873
Leguminoseae 2874
Alfalfa 2874
Beans 2875
Chickpeas 2875
Lentils 2876
Soybeans 2876
Lythracaea 2876
Pomegranate 2876
Malvaceae 2876
Cotton 2876
Okra 2877
Oleaceae 2877
Olives 2877
Pedaliaceae 2878
Sesame 2878
Pinaceae 2878
Cedars 2878
Pine 2878
Rosaceae 2879
Almond 2879
Apple 2879
Peach 2880
Pear 2881
Plum 2881
Quince 2881
Strawberry 2881
Rutaceae 2882
Citrus 2882
Solanaceae 2884
Eggplant 2884
Potato 2884
Tomato 2884
Urticaceae 2884
Figs 2884
Mulberry 2885
Vitaceae 2885
Grapes 2885
Miscellaneous 2885
Stone fruit trees 2885
Storage pests 2885
Beans (Leguminosaea) 2885
Chickpeas (Leguminosaea) 2885
Cotton (Malvaceae) 2885
Cowpeas (Leguminosaea) 2886
Lentils (Leguminosaea) 2886
Sesame (Pedaliaceae) 2886
Sunflower (Asteraceae/Compositae) 2886
Wheat (Gramineae/Poaceae) 2886
Vegetables 2886
References 2886
Pest Species 2886
Petaluridae 2886
Petiolate 2886
Petiole 2887
Petrunkevitch, Alexander 2887
Reference 2887
Phacopteronidae 2887
Phage (Bacteriophage) 2887
Phalacridae 2887
Phagocytes 2887
Phagostimulant 2887
Phagocytosis 2887
Phallus 2887
Phantom Crane Flies 2888
Phantom Midges 2888
Pharate 2888
Pharynx 2888
Phase Polymorphism in Locusts 2888
Dispersal Polymorphism 2888
Environmental Factors Inducing Phase Differentiation in Locusts 2890
Differences Between Phase States: Solitarious Versus Gregarious 2890
Developmental and Reproductive Differences 2891
Metabolic Differences 2892
Morphological Differences 2892
Chromatic Differences 2893
Behavioral Differences 2893
Stimuli Inducing or Enhancing Phase State 2893
Tactile Stimuli 2894
Visual Stimuli 2894
Chemical Stimuli: Olfactory and Contact Chemicals 2894
Some Physiological Mechanisms Behind Phase Polymorphism 2895
Juvenile Hormone (JH) and its Analogues 2895
Ecdysteroids 2896
Corazonin 2896
Proliferation of the Gregarious State 2897
References 2898
Phasic Receptors 2898
Phasmatidae 2898
Phasmatodea 2898
Phenacoleachiidae 2898
Phengodidae 2898
Phenogram 2898
Phenological Asynchrony 2898
Phenological Synchrony 2898
Phenology 2898
Phenology Models for Pest Management 2898
Growth and Development
of Populations 2899
Constructing Phenology Models Through the Conduct of Laboratory Experiments 2900
Predicting Insect Development with a Linear Thermal Unit Function 2901
Predicting Insect Development with a Nonlinear Developmental Function 2902
Constructing Phenology Models Through the Use of Field Studies 2902
Concluding Remarks 2904
References 2905
Phenotype 2905
Phenotypic Plasticity 2906
References 2906
Pheromone 2906
Pheromones 2906
Types of Pheromones 2907
The Early Days of Pheromone Research 2907
Pheromone Biosynthesis 2908
Use of Pheromones by Insects and Humans 2909
References 2910
Pheromone Parsimony 2910
Phialides 2910
Philanthidae 2910
Philopotamidae 2910
Philopteridae 2910
Philotarsidae 2910
Phlaeothripidae 2910
Phloeidae 2910
Phoenician Billbug, Sphenophorus phoeniciensis Chittenden (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2910
Phoenicococcidae 2910
Phonotaxis 2911
Phoracantha longicorn Beetles (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) 2911
External Morphology 2911
Biodiversity and Distribution 2911
Habitat, Host and Life Cycle 2911
Insect Natural Enemies 2912
Economic and Ecological Importance 2913
References 2913
Phoresy 2913
Phoridae 2913
Phryganeidae 2914
Phosphorylation 2914
Photodynamic Action in Pest Control and Medicine 2914
O2 Metabolism 2914
Light Absorption 2916
Mechanisms 2916
Effects of Photosensitizers and Light on Cells 2918
How Do Photosensitizers and Light Kill Cells? 2919
Multiple Mechanisms of Xanthene Dyes in Insects 2919
Photodynamic Dyes 2919
Photodynamic Effect of Rose Bengal and Erythrosin Against Insects 2920
Practical Aspects of Erythrosin B in lnsect Control 2921
Mode of Action of Photosensitizing Dyes in Insects 2922
Persistence of Erythrosin in Biological System 2923
Effect of Photosensitizing Dyes on Other Organisms 2923
Photodynamic Therapy 2923
Extent of Penetration 2924
Mode of Action in Photodynamic Therapy 2924
Effect on Tumor and Non-target Tissues 2925
Risks and Benefits 2925
References 2926
Photokinesis 2926
Photoperiod 2926
Photoperiodism 2926
Photosynthesis 2927
Phototaxis 2927
Phragma (pl, phragmata) 2927
Phragmosis 2927
Phthiriasis 2927
Phthiraptera 2927
Phyletic Lines 2927
Phyletic Speciation 2927
Phylogenetic Tree 2927
Phylogenetics 2927
What Types of Data Are Used in Insect Phylogenetics? 2929
Morphological Data 2929
Molecular Data 2929
Combined Analysis or Total Evidence 2930
What Are the Major Modern Methodologies Used in Phylogenetics? 2930
Maximum Parsimony 2930
Statistical Approaches 2931
Bayesian 2931
What Is Going on in Insect Phylogenetic Studies? 2932
References 2932
Phylogeny 2932
Phylosphere 2933
Phylloxerans 2933
Phylloxeridae 2933
Phylum (pl, phyla) 2933
Physical Control 2933
Physical Gill 2933
Physical Management of Insect Pests 2933
Insect-Proof Screens and Covers 2934
Specifications of Insect Exclusion Covers 2934
Microperforated and Unwoven Sheets 2934
Woven Screens (Whitefly Exclusion Screens) 2935
Knitted Shade Screens 2935
Knitted-Woven Screen 2935
Thrips Exclusion 2935
Greenhouse Ventilation, Insect Invasion and Screens 2936
Insect Suction Devices 2936
Insect Glue (Polybutene) 2936
Electromagnetic Energy 2936
Longwaves: Radio Frequencies (RF) and Infrared (IR) 2936
Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation 2937
Gamma Irradiation: A Postharvest Treatment 2937
Air Ion Stimulation 2937
Visible Light 2938
Attractive Colors 2938
Ground Colors and Whitefly Trapping 2938
Mass Trapping 2938
Colored Screens 2938
Mulches 2938
Whitewashes 2938
Photoperiod 2939
Chemically Induced Behavior Modifiers 2939
References 2939
Phytoecdysones 2939
Phytophage 2940
Phytophagous 2940
Phytophagy 2940
References 2940
Phytosanitary Procedure 2940
Phytosanitary Regulation 2940
Phytoseiid Mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) 2940
Classification 2941
Ecology 2941
References 2945
Phytotelmata 2945
References 2948
Phytotoxemia 2949
Phytotoxicity 2949
Piceous 2949
Pickett, Allison Deforest 2949
Reference 2950
Pickleworm, Diaphania nitidalis (Stoll) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 2950
Life History 2950
Damage 2951
Management 2952
References 2953
Picture-Winged Flies 2953
Picture-Winged Leaf Moths (Lepidoptera: Thyrididae) 2953
References 2953
PierceŁs Disease Of Grape 2953
Pieridae 2953
Piesmatidae 2954
Pile 2954
Pileiform 2954
Pilifer 2954
Pill Beetles 2954
Pillbugs and Sowbugs, or Woodlice (Isopoda) 2954
Classification 2954
Life Cycle and Description 2955
Ecology 2956
References 2956
Pilose 2956
Pine and Spruce Aphids 2957
Pine Tip Moths, Rhyacionia spp (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 2957
References 2958
Pine Weevil, Hylobius abietis Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 2958
Migration 2958
Oviposition 2959
Development 2959
Damage to the Conifer Seedlings 2959
Control 2960
References 2961
Pine Wilt 2961
Pine-Flower Snout Beetles 2961
Pin-Hole Borers 2961
Pink Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) 2961
References 2964
Piophilidae 2964
Pipunculidae 2964
Piroplasmosis: Babesia and Theileria 2964
Babesia 2964
Theileria 2968
References 2969
Pistachio Seed Wasps 2969
Eurytoma plotnikovi NikolŁ Skaya (Eurytomidae) 2970
Megastigmus pistaciae Walker (Torymidae) 2971
References 2971
Pit Scales 2971
Plague: Biology and Epidemiology 2971
References 2973
Planidiiform Larva 2973
Planidium 2973
Planta (pl, plantae) 2973
Plant Bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae) 2973
Morphology 2974
Habitats and Host Plants 2975
Life History and Habits 2976
Economic Importance 2977
Natural Enemies 2978
References 2978
Plant Compensation 2978
Plant Extrafloral Nectaries 2978
Some Plant Families with Extrafloral Nectaries 2980
Location and Morphology 2980
Some Species with Extrafloral Nectaries 2981
The Location of Some Extrafloral Nectaries on the Plant 2982
Composition and Periodicity 2982
Function and Ecological Interactions 2983
References 2985
Planthopper Parasite Moths (Lepidoptera: Epipyropidae) 2985
References 2986
Planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoroidea) 2986
Morphology 2986
Phylogeny 2986
Habitats 2987
Hosts 2987
Pest Species 2988
Communication 2988
Wax Production 2988
Other Behavior 2989
Predators and Parasites 2989
Family Synopsis 2989
Acanaloniidae 2989
Achilidae 2989
Achilixiidae 2989
Caliscelidae 2990
Cixiidae 2990
Delphacidae 2990
Derbidae 2990
Dictyopharidae 2991
Eurybrachidae 2991
Flatidae 2991
Fulgoridae 2991
Gengidae 2991
Hypochthonellidae 2992
Issidae 2992
Kinnaridae 2992
Lophopidae 2992
Meenoplidae 2992
Nogodinidae 2992
Ricaniidae 2992
Tettigometridae 2992
Tropiduchidae 2993
Current Status 2993
Further Information 2993
References 2993
Plant Lice 2994
Plant Resistance to Insects 2994
The Nature of Insect Damage to Plants: Direct Versus Indirect Damage 2994
Definitions of Plant Resistance to Pests 2995
Mechanisms of Resistance 2995
Vector Resistance 2995
Methodology: Evaluating Plant-Resistance to Insects 2996
Plant Resistance to Pests Causing Direct Damage 2996
Evaluation of Vector Resistance 2997
Sources of Resistance 2997
Soybeans 2997
Cotton 2997
Engineered Resistance 2997
Environmental Factors Affecting Resistance 2998
The Effect of Light Intensity and Photoperiod 2998
The Effect of Plant Nutrition 2998
Aphids 3007
References 2999
Plant Secondary Compounds and Phytophagous Insects 2999
References 3002
Plant Viruses and Insects 3002
Components Involved in Disease Epidemiology 3003
Insect Feeding Mechanisms 3003
Tools to Understand Feeding (Electronic Monitoring of Insect Feeding) 3006
Insect Vector...Plant Pathogen Interactions 3006
Some Insect-Transmitted Viral Plant Diseases 3007
Leafhoppers 3008
Whiteflies 3008
Thrips 3009
References 3009
Plasmatocyte 3009
Plasmid 3009
Plasterer Bees 3010
Plastron 3010
Plataspidae 3010
Plate-Thigh Beetles 3010
Platygastridae 3010
Platypezidae 3010
Platypodidae 3010
Platystictidae 3010
Platystomatidae 3010
Pleasing Fungus Beetles 3010
Pleasing Lacewings 3010
Plecomidae 3010
Plecomidae 3011
Plecoptera 3011
Pleidae 3011
Pleiotropic 3011
Pleural 3011
Plesiomorphy 3011
Pleuron (pl, pleura) 3011
Plica 3011
Plokiophilidae 3011
Plumaridae 3011
Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 3011
Life Cycle 3011
Host Plants 3013
Damage and Economic Impact 3013
Management of the Plum Curculio 3014
Behavioral Studies 3014
Treatment of Peripheral Zones of Apple Orchards 3014
Trapping Methods 3015
Attractants 3016
Biological Control 3017
References 3017
Plume Moths (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae) 3017
Morphology and Family Characters 3017
Adults 3017
Immature Stages 3018
Host Plant Associations 3018
Distribution 3020
Life Histories, Habits and Behavior 3020
Adults 3020
Larvae 3020
Sundew Plume Moths 3020
Economic Species 3022
References 3023
Plumose 3023
Plutellidae 3023
Poduridae 3023
Poikilothermic 3023
Polar Filament 3024
Pollen Basket 3024
Pollenose 3024
Pollen Pot 3024
Pollen Rake 3024
Pollination and Flower Visitation 3024
Evolutionary Overview 3024
Taxonomic Diversity 3025
Floral Advertising 3028
Floral Rewards 3029
Other Floral Rewards: Heat, Floral Tissue, Sex 3030
Energetics: Time and Motion 3031
Ecosystems, Community and Co- Evolutionary Ecology 3032
Pollination for Food and Fiber Production 3033
Insect Conservation 3034
References 3035
Pollination by Osmia Bees (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) 3035
Osmia Biology 3037
Field Pollination 3037
Pear 3037
Apricot 3038
Chinese-Japanese Plum Cv ŁAngelenoŽ 3038
Oil-Rape 3038
Cultivation in Greenhouses 3038
Blackberry, Strawberry and Raspberry 3040
Blueberry 3040
Seed and Red Cabbage 3040
Lucerne and White Clover 3041
Inhibition of Pollen Germination 3041
References 3042
Pollination by Yucca Moths 3042
References 3043
Pollinator 3043
Pollution and Terrestrial Arthropods 3043
Air Pollutants 3044
Pollutants that Transfer from Water to Soil 3045
The Special Case of Metals 3046
Conclusion 3047
References 3047
Polyacetylenes (and Their Thiophene Derivatives) 3047
Structure 3047
Occurrence in Plants 3048
Activity 3048
Mode of Action of Polyacetylenes and Thiophene Derivatives 3049
References 3050
Polyacridamide Gel Electrophoresis 3050
Polyandry 3050
Polycentropodidae 3050
Polyctenidae 3050
Polyculture 3050
Types of Polyculture Systems 3051
Advantages and Disadvantages of Polyculture 3051
Polyculture and Insect Pest Management Theory 3052
Polyculture for Insect Management in Practice 3052
References 3053
Polydnaviruses (Parasitoid Related Viruses) 3053
References 3055
Polydomous 3055
Polyembryony 3055
Polyethism 3055
Polygenic Resistance 3055
Polyhedron (pl, polyhedra) 3055
Polyhedrosis (pl, polyhedroses) 3055
Polygyny 3055
Polymer 3055
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 3055
Polymitarcyidae 3056
Polymorphism 3056
Polyphaga 3056
Polyphagidae 3056
Polyphagous 3056
Polyphenism in Insects and Juvenile Hormone (JH) 3056
References 3059
Polyphenism 3059
References 3060
Polyphyletic Group 3061
Polyplacidae 3061
Polyploidy 3061
Polypodous 3061
Polypore Fungus Beetles 3061
Polystoechotidae 3061
Polytene Chromosomes 3061
References 3062
Polythoridae 3062
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 3062
Pomace Flies 3062
Pomerantsev, Boris Ivanovich 3062
Reference 3063
Pompilidae 3063
Popularity of Insects 3063
References 3070
Population 3070
Population Density 3070
Population Dynamics 3071
Population Ecology 3071
Population Index 3071
Population Pyramid 3071
Population Regulation 3071
Population Resilience 3071
Pore Canal 3071
Porrect 3071
Post-Emergence Treatment 3071
Posterior 3071
Postoccipital Suture 3071
Postocular Area 3071
Postpetiole 3071
Post-Plant 3072
Postscutellum 3072
Potamanthidae 3072
Potamocoridae 3072
Potato Aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 3072
Life History 3072
Damage 3074
Management 3074
References 3075
Potato Flea Beetle, Epitrix cucumeris (Harris) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 3075
Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae 3075
Potato Pests and Their Management 3075
Colorado Potato Beetle 3075
Biology 3076
Management 3076
Crop Rotations 3076
Control of Volunteers and Weeds 3076
Chemical Control and Management of Insecticide Resistance 3077
Biological Control 3077
Green Peach Aphid 3078
Biology 3078
Management 3079
Cultural Control 3079
Biological Control 3080
Chemical Control and Management of Insecticide Resistance 3080
Wireworms 3080
Biology 3081
Management 3081
Secondary Pests in Alphabetical Order 3082
Blister Beetles 3082
Cutworms and Armyworms 3083
Flea Beetles 3083
Management 3084
Garden Symphylan 3084
Management 3084
Grasshoppers 3084
Management 3084
Leafhoppers 3085
Management 3085
WitchesŁ Broom and Leafhoppers 3085
Leather Jackets 3085
Management 3085
Loopers 3086
Management 3086
Lygus Bugs 3086
Management 3086
Potato Aphid 3086
Management 3087
Thrips 3087
Management 3087
Twospotted Spider Mite 3087
Management 3087
White Grubs 3091
Management 3091
References 3091
Potato Tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) 3091
Life History 3091
Damage 3093
Management 3093
References 3094
Potter, Charles 3094
Reference 3095
Potter Wasps 3095
Poultry Lice 3095
Pour-On 3095
Powassan Encephalitis 3095
Powderpost Beetles (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae: Lyctinae) 3095
External Morphology 3095
Life History and Habits 3095
Predators and Parasites 3096
Economic Importance 3096
Control Measures 3097
References 3097
Powderpost Termites 3097
Powdery Mildew 3097
Praying Mantids (Mantodea) 3097
Distinguishing Characteristics 3097
Life History 3098
Ecology and Economic Importance 3100
References 3101
Precinction 3101
Precinctive 3101
Precision 3101
Preclearance 3101
Precocenes 3101
Predaceous (Predacious) 3101
Predaceous Diving Beetles 3101
Predation: The Role of Generalist Predators in Biodiversity and Biological Control 3102
The Niche of Generalist Predators 3102
The Predator Guild and Community Interactions 3103
Generalist Predators and Biological Control 3104
Value of Predators to Biodiversity 3105
References 3106
Predator 3106
Predatory Guild 3106
Predatory Stink Bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae, Asopinae) 3106
External Morphology 3106
Habitat and Food 3107
Life History 3107
Prey Location and Capture 3108
Pheromones 3108
Economic Importance 3108
References 3109
Predisposing Factors 3109
Pre-Emergence Treatment 3109
Pre-Planting Treatment 3110
Prepupa 3110
Prescutum 3110
Presocial Behavior 3110
Prevalence 3110
Pretarsus 3110
Prey 3110
Primary Parasitoid 3110
Primary Production 3110
Primary Productivity 3111
Primary Reproductives 3111
Primer 3111
Primer Pheromone 3111
Primitive Caddisflies 3111
Primitive Carrion Beetles 3111
Primitive Crane Flies 3111
Primitive Dampwood Termites 3111
Primitive Weevils 3111
Prionoglaridae 3111
Probability Model 3111
Probe 3111
Proboscis 3111
Process 3111
Proctodeum 3112
Proctotrupidae 3112
Procuticle 3112
Prodoxidae 3113
Profitability Concept 3113
Prognathous 3113
Progressive Provisioning 3113
Prohemocyte 3113
Projapygidae 3113
Prokaryote 3113
Prokopy, Ronald J 3113
Reference 3114
Prolarvae 3114
Proleg 3114
Prominence 3114
Prominent Moths (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) 3114
References 3115
Promoter 3115
Pronotal Comb 3115
Pronotum 3115
Pronunciation of Scientific Names and Terms 3115
References 3117
Propagative Transmission 3118
Propagule 3118
Prophylactic Control 3118
Propleuron 3118
Propolis 3118
Proprioreceptor 3118
Propupa 3118
Prosopistomatidae 3118
Prosternum 3118
Prostomidae 3118
Prostomium 3118
Protease 3118
Protein 3118
Protelean Parasite 3118
Proteneuridae 3119
Protentomidae 3119
Proteomics 3119
Prothoracic Glands 3119
Prothoracicotropic Hormone 3119
PTTH-Prothoracic Gland Interactions 3121
The PTTH Transductory Cascade 3122
References 3125
Prothoracic Plate 3125
Prothorax 3125
Protocerebrum 3125
Protonymph 3125
Protopodite 3125
Prototheoridae 3126
Protuberance 3126
Proturans (Protura) 3126
References 3128
Provancher, (LŁ abbé) Léon 3128
References 3128
Proventriculus 3128
Proximal 3129
Pruinose 3129
Psephenidae 3129
Pseudergate 3129
Pseudironidae 3129
Pseudoantagonism 3129
Pseudocaeciliidae 3129
Pseudococcidae 3129
Pseudocopulation 3129
Pseudo-Curly Top Treehopper, Micrutalis malleifera (Fowler) (Hemiptera: Membracidae) 3129
References 3130
Pseudomyiasis 3130
Pseudophasmatidae 3130
Pseudopod 3131
Pseudopositor 3131
Pseudoparasitism 3131
Pseudostigmatidae 3131
Psilidae 3131
Psilopsocidae 3131
Psocidae 3131
Psocids 3131
Psocoptera 3131
Psoquillidae 3131
Psychiatry and Insects: Phobias and Delusions of Insect Infestations in Humans 3131
References 3133
Psychidae 3134
Psychodidae 3134
Psychomyiidae 3134
Psychopsidae 3134
Psyllidae 3134
Psyllids 3134
Psyllipsocidae 3134
Pteridophagy 3134
Pterolonchidae 3134
Pteromalidae 3134
Pteronarcidae 3134
Pterophoridae 3134
Pterostigma 3135
Pterothorax 3135
Pterothysanidae 3135
Pterygote 3135
Pthiraptera 3135
Pthiridae 3135
Ptiliidae 3135
Ptilinum 3135
Ptilodactylid Beetles 3135
Ptilodactylidae 3135
Ptiloneuridae 3135
Ptinidae 3135
PTTH 3135
Ptychopteridae 3136
Pubescence 3136
Pubescent 3136
Pubic Lice 3136
Puddling Behavior by Lepidoptera 3136
References 3137
Puffing 3137
Pulicidae 3137
Pulsatile Organ 3137
Pulvillus (pl, pulvilli) 3137
Punctate 3137
Punkies 3137
Pupa 3137
Pupariation 3138
Puparium (pl, puparia) 3138
Pupation 3138
Pupiparous 3138
Purple Scale, Cornuaspis beckii (Newman) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 3138
Push-Pull Strategy for Insect Pest Management 3138
Management of Cereal Stemborers in Africa Through Push-Pull Strategy 3139
How Push-Pull Strategy Works 3139
Benefits of Push-Pull Strategy 3141
Reduced Soil Erosion and Increased Soil Fertility 3142
Striga Weed Control 3142
Enhanced Biodiversity 3143
Livestock Production and Human Health 3143
Economics of Push-Pull 3143
Future Directions 3145
References 3146
Putoidae 3146
Putzeys, Jules Antoine Adolphe Henri 3147
Reference 3147
Pygidicranidae 3147
Pygidium 3147
Pygiopsyllidae 3147
Pygmy Backswimmers 3147
Pygmy Grasshoppers 3147
Pygmy Mole Crickets 3147
Pygmy Moths (Lepidoptera: Nepticulidae) 3147
References 3148
Pyloric Valve 3148
Pyralidae 3148
Pyrethroids 3148
Pyrethrum 3148
Pyrethrum and Persian Insect Powder 3148
History 3149
Use and Formulations 3150
Synergists 3150
The Pyrethrum Plant 3151
Pyrethrum Production 3151
Active Ingredients 3152
Pyrethroids 3153
References 3153
Pyrgotid Flies 3154
Pyrgotidae 3154
Pyrochroidae 3154
Pyrophilous Insects 3154
Sensory Receptors and Behavior 3154
Ecology and Natural History 3156
References 3157
Pyrrhocoridae 3157
Pythidae 3158
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids and Tiger Moths (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) 3158
References 3159
fulltext_17.pdf 3161
Q-Fever 3161
Quadrat 3161
Qualitative Defenses (of Plants) 3161
Quantitative Defenses (of Plants) 3161
Quarantine 3161
Quarantine Facility 3161
Quarantine Pest 3162
Quasisocial Behavior 3162
Quaternary Period 3162
Queen 3162
Queensland Tick Typhus 3162
Queen Substance 3162
Quiescence 3162
Quiet-Calling Katydids 3162
fulltext_18.pdf 3163
Rabb, Robert Lamar 3163
Reference 3163
Rabbit Fever 3163
Race 3163
Radiolabeling 3163
Radial Cell 3163
Radial Sector 3164
Radius 3164
Radoshkowsky, Octavius John 3164
Reference 3164
Rain Beetles 3164
Rallidentidae 3164
Random Distribution 3164
Random Sampling 3164
RAPD-PCR 3164
Raphidiid Snakeflies 3164
Raphidiidae 3165
Raphidioptera 3165
Rapsmatidae 3165
Raptorial 3165
Rasorial 3165
Raspberry Cane Borer, Oberea bimaculara (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidea) 3165
Raspberry Fruit Worm, Byturus unicolor (Say) (Coleoptera: Byturidae) 3165
Raster 3165
Ratardidae 3165
Ratemiidae 3165
Rearing of Insects 3165
Selecting an Insect to Rear 3166
Founding a Colony 3167
Facilities and Equipment 3167
Materials and Supplies 3168
Insect Rearing Procedures 3168
Food for Immature and Adult Insects 3169
Isolation and Sanitation 3169
Quality of Reared Insects 3172
References 3172
De ReŁ Aumur, René Antoine Ferchault 3173
Reference 3173
Recapture Technique of Sampling 3173
Recombinant DNA Technology 3173
Recombination 3173
Recruitment Trail 3173
Rectal Gill 3173
Rectal Myiasis 3173
Rectal Pad 3174
Rectum 3174
Recurrent Vein 3174
Red Bugs 3174
Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium confusum Jacquilin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) 3174
Redi, Francesco 3174
Reference 3175
Red Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 3175
Description 3175
Spread 3176
Colony Formation 3176
Life Cycle 3177
Habitat and Food Source(s) 3177
Pest Status 3177
Medical Importance 3177
Equipment Damage 3178
Agricultural and Ecological Impact 3178
History of Spread 3179
History of Control Efforts in the US 3179
References 3180
Red Imported Fire Ant Territorial Behavior 3180
References 3183
Redlegged Grasshopper, Melanoplus femurrubrum (Degeer) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 3183
Life History 3183
Damage 3185
Management 3185
References 3186
Red Muscardine 3187
Red Palm Mite, Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Prostigmata: Tenuipalpidae) 3187
Description of Stages 3187
Life Cycle 3187
Seasonality 3188
Dispersal 3188
Damage 3189
Chemical Control 3189
Natural Enemies 3190
References 3190
Red Palm Weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 3191
Distribution of Red Palm Weevil 3191
Life Cycle 3191
Eggs 3192
Larva (grub) 3192
Cocoon 3192
Pupa 3192
Adult 3192
Economic Importance and Damage 3193
Methods of Control 3193
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 3193
Plant Quarantine 3193
Cultural Control 3193
Mechanical Control 3193
Trapping Weevils 3193
Biological Control 3193
Chemical Control 3193
Training and Education 3194
References 3194
Red Ring of Coconut Palms 3194
Redtenbacher, Ludwig 3194
Reference 3194
Reduviidae 3194
Red Water Fever 3194
Reed, Walter 3195
References 3196
Reflex Bleeding (Autohemorrhage) 3196
Reflex Bleeding in Plecoptera 3197
Reflex Bleeding in hom*optera: Cercopidae 3197
Reflex Bleeding in Lepidoptera 3197
Reflex Bleeding in Hymenoptera: Symphyta 3198
Reflex Bleeding in Coleoptera 3198
Lampyridae 3198
Lycidae 3199
Chrysomelidae 3199
Meloidae and Oedemeridae 3200
Coccinellidae 3201
Evolution of Reflex Bleeding 3202
References 3203
Refuge (pl., refugia) 3203
Regeneration 3203
Regenerative Cells 3203
Regulated Area 3203
Regulation of Sex Pheromone Production in Moths 3203
References 3206
Regulations Affecting the Implementation of Regulatory Entomology Practices 3206
References 3211
Regulations Affecting Use of Pesticides in the USA 3211
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) 3212
Certification of Applicators 3212
Recall of Suspended Pesticides 3213
The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) 3213
Pesticide Record Keeping Requirements 3213
Endangered Species Act (ESA) 3214
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA) 3214
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA Title III) 3214
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) 3215
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) 3215
Worker Protection Standard (WPS) 3216
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 3216
Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (HMTA) 3216
Pesticide Use in the USA 3217
A Global Perspective of Pesticide Regulation 3217
References 3218
Regulatory Entomology 3218
References 3219
Regulatory Sequence 3220
Rehn, James Abram Garfield 3220
References 3220
Reitter, Edmund 3220
Reference 3220
Relapsing Fever 3220
Relative Humidity 3220
Relative Methods of Sampling 3220
Releaser Pheromone 3221
Remigium 3221
Remington, Charles Lee 3221
Remote Sensing 3221
Removal Trapping for Population Estimation 3221
Reniform 3221
Reoviruses (Cypoviruses) 3221
References 3223
Repellents 3223
Repellents of Biting Flies 3223
Citronella 3224
Geraniol 3224
Quwenling 3224
Neem 3224
Soy Bean Oil 3224
Oil of Palmarosa 3225
Castor Seed Oil 3225
Thujic Acid 3225
Indian Privet 3225
Lemon Oil 3225
Tarweed 3225
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 3225
(+)-Eucamolol 3225
Merck 3535 3225
KBR 3023 3225
PMD 3225
References 3226
Replete 3226
Reproduction 3226
The Ovary and Egg Production 3227
The Male Internal System and Sperm Production 3228
Pheromones in Reproduction 3229
Determination of Gender 3230
References 3231
Reproductive Rate 3231
Reservoir 3231
Resilience 3231
Resilin 3231
Resistance of Solanaceous Vegetables to Insects 3232
The Pests and Their Geographical Origin 3232
Mechanisms of Resistance 3233
Vector Resistance 3233
Breeding for Pest Resistance 3234
Aphids 3234
Whiteflies 3235
Leafhoppers 3236
Leafminer Flies 3236
Moths and Butterflies 3236
Beetles 3237
References 3237
Resistance to Insecticides 3237
Resistant 3237
Resource Concentration Hypothesis 3237
Resource Partitioning 3238
Respiratory Horns 3238
Respiratory Siphon 3238
Respiratory Trumpet 3238
Restricted-Use Pesticide 3238
Restriction Endonuclease 3238
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) 3238
Resurgence of Pests 3238
Reticulations 3238
Reticulated Beetles 3238
Retina 3238
Retournement and Deversem*nt of the Aedeagus in Coleoptera 3239
References 3242
Rey, Claudius 3242
References 3242
RFLP 3242
Rhabdom 3243
Rhabdomere 3243
Rhabdoviruses 3243
References 3244
Rhagionidae 3244
Rhammatocerus schistocercoides, a Swarm-Forming Grasshopper from South America 3244
Biology 3244
Behavior 3244
Habitat 3245
References 3246
Rhaphidiporidae 3246
Rheotaxis 3246
Rhinophorid Flies 3246
Rhinophoridae 3246
Rhinotermitidae 3246
Rhipiceridae 3246
Rhipiphoridae 3246
Rhopalidae 3246
Rhopalopsyllidae 3247
Rhopalosomatidae 3247
Rhyacophilidae 3247
Rhypharochromidae 3247
Rhysodidae 3247
Rhythms of Insects 3247
Examples of Behavioral Circadian Rhythms 3248
Developmental Processes in Insects 3249
Spectrum of Rhythms 3250
Lunar Rhythms 3250
Circannual Rhythms 3251
Interrelationships of Circadian Rhythms and Insecticide Sensitivity 3251
References 3253
Ribbed-Cocoon Maker Moths (Lepidoptera: Bucculatricidae) 3254
References 3254
Ribosomal RNA 3254
Ribosome 3254
Ricaniidae 3254
Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 3254
Richardiid Flies 3254
Richariidae 3255
Richards, Owain Westmacott 3255
Reference 3255
Ricinidae 3255
Rickettsia 3255
Riffle Beetles (Coleoptera: Elmidae) 3255
Ecology 3256
References 3257
Riker Mount 3258
Riley, Charles Valentine 3258
References 3259
Ring Gland 3259
Ring-Legged Earwigs 3259
Riodinidae 3259
Ripicolous 3259
RNA 3259
RNA Interference (RNAi) 3259
RNA Polymerase 3260
Roach Stoneflies 3260
Robber Flies (Diptera: Asilidae) 3260
Classification and Relationships 3261
Reproduction and Immatures 3263
Predatory Habits of Adults 3263
References 3265
Robineau-Desvoidy, Jean Baptiste 3265
Reference 3265
Robust 3266
Robust Marsh-Loving Beetles 3266
Rock Crawlers (Grylloblattodea) 3266
Characteristics 3266
Biology 3266
References 3266
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever 3266
History of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever 3267
Epidemiology 3268
Symptomology 3269
Treatment 3270
Prevention 3270
References 3270
Rocky Mountain Wood Tick, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles (Acari: Ixodidae) 3270
References 3272
Rodent Fleas 3272
Life Cycle and Control of Rodent Fleas 3274
References 3274
Rolled-Wing Stoneflies 3275
Romaleidae 3275
RomañaŁs Sign 3275
Rondani, Camillo 3275
References 3275
Root Maggots 3275
Root-Eating Beetles 3275
Root-Infecting Fungi 3276
Ropalomerid Flies 3276
Ropalomeridae 3276
Roproniidae 3276
Rose-Grain Aphid, Metopolophium dirhodum (Walker) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 3276
Rosen, David 3276
Referencesw 3276
Ross, Herbert Holdsworth 3276
Reference 3277
Rostrum 3277
Rosy Apple Aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 3277
Rotation 3277
Rotenone 3277
Rothschild, Miriam 3277
Reference 3277
Rotoitidae 3278
Rottenwood Termites 3278
Roubal, Jan 3278
Reference 3278
Round Fungus Beetles 3278
References 3280
Rove Beetle Dermatitis 3280
Row Cover 3280
Royal Cell 3280
Royal Jelly 3280
Royal Moths 3280
Royal Palm Bugs 3280
R-Strategists 3281
Ruderal 3281
Rudimentary 3281
Rufous 3281
Rugose 3281
Runoff 3281
Rupicolous 3281
Russian Wheat Aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 3281
Rust Diseases 3282
Rust Flies 3282
Rusty Grain Beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) 3282
Ryania 3282
Rove Beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) 3282
Adults 3282
Immature Stages 3283
Habitats 3283
Food 3284
Presocial or Subsocial Behavior 3285
Obligate Relationships with Higher Plants 3285
Relationships with Fungi 3286
Relationships with Decomposing Plants, Dung, and Carrion 3286
Nests of Vertebrates 3286
Secretions and Glands 3286
Pheromones 3287
Prey Capture and Pre-Oral Digestion 3287
Natural Enemies 3287
Biological Control 3287
Fossils 3287
Importance to Humans 3287
References 3288
fulltext_19.pdf 3289
Sabrosky, Curtis 3289
Reference 3289
Sackbearer Moths (Lepidoptera: Mimallonidae) 3289
References 3290
Sacbrood 3290
Sacbrood Disease 3290
References 3293
Saddle 3293
Saddle-Case Makers 3293
Sagittal 3293
Sahlberg, Carl Reinhold 3293
Reference 3293
Sailer, Reece I 3293
Reference 3294
Saldidae 3294
Saliva 3294
Salivary Glands 3294
Salpingidae 3295
Sample 3295
Sample Size 3295
Sample Unit 3295
Sample Universe 3295
Sampling Arthropods 3295
Goals of Sampling 3295
Sampling Methods 3299
Development of a Sampling Plan/Program 3303
Sample Plan Components 3304
Types of Sampling Plans 3306
Allocation of Sampling Units 3308
Testing and Evaluation of
Sample Plans 3309
References 3310
Sampling Plan 3310
Sanderson, Dwight 3310
Reference 3310
Sandfly Fever 3310
Reference 3311
Sand Fly 3311
Sanitation 3311
Sap Beetles (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) 3311
Adults 3311
Larvae 3312
Food 3312
Economic Importance 3312
References 3312
Saprophagous 3312
Sapygidae 3312
Sarcophagidae 3313
Sarcoptic Mange 3313
Sarcosomes 3313
Saturniidae 3313
Satyrs 3313
Saucer Bugs 3313
Saunders, William 3313
Reference 3313
Saussure, Henri Louis Frederic De 3314
Reference 3314
Sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta) 3314
References 3316
Sawflies (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) 3316
Systematics and Geographic Distribution 3316
Morphology 3317
Life History and Habits 3317
Natural Enemies and Defense Strategies 3319
Economic Importance 3320
References 3321
Say Stink Bug, Chlorochroa sayi Stål (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) 3321
Say, Thomas 3321
References 3322
Scabies 3322
Scale 3322
Scale and Hierarchy in Integrated Pest Management 3322
Concepts of Scale and Hierarchy 3322
Application of Scale and Hierarchy Concepts to IPM 3323
Spatial Scales 3324
hom*ogeneous Sampling Universe 3324
Heterogeneous Sampling Universe 3325
Spatial Range Extension 3325
Temporal Scale 3325
Temporal Range Extension 3325
Mass Scale 3326
Concluding Remarks 3326
References 3326
Scaled Fleas 3327
Scale Insects and Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) 3327
Economic Impact of Scale Insects 3327
General Morphology 3328
Protective Test or Scale Cover 3330
Life Cycle and Behavior 3330
Host Selection and Distribution 3332
Control 3335
Key to Families of Coccoidea in the U.S. (Modified from Kosztarab, 1996) 3335
References 3336
Scaly Crickets 3336
Scape 3336
Scarabaeiform Larva 3336
Scarabaeidae 3337
Scarab Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea) 3337
Morphology and Development 3338
Taxonomic Composition 3338
Lucanidae 3341
Diphyllostomatidae 3341
Passalidae 3341
Glaresidae 3341
Trogidae 3341
Pleocomidae 3341
Geotrupidae 3341
Belohinidae 3342
Ochodaeidae 3342
Hybosoridae 3342
Glaphyridae 3342
Scarabaeidae 3342
Aclopinae 3343
Allidiostomatinae 3343
Aphodiinae 3343
Cetoniinae 3343
Dynamopodinae 3343
Dynastinae 3343
Euchirinae 3343
Melolonthinae 3344
Orphninae 3344
Pachypodinae 3344
Phaenomeridinae 3344
Rutelinae 3344
Scarabaeinae 3344
Ecology 3344
Behavior 3345
Ecological Importance 3346
Agricultural and Medical-Veterinary Importance 3347
Cultural Importance 3349
References 3350
Scatophile 3350
Scarabaeidae 3350
Scatopsidae 3350
Scavenger Moths (Lepidoptera: Blastobasidae) 3351
References 3351
Scelionidae 3351
Scenopinidae 3351
Scent Gland 3351
Scentless Plant Bugs 3351
Scheerpeltz, Otto 3351
Reference 3352
Schizopteridae 3352
Schmidt's Layer 3352
Schneiderman, Howard Allen 3352
Reference 3352
Schizopodid Beetles 3352
Schizopodidae 3352
School IPM, or Pest Management on School Grounds 3353
The Role of Parents 3353
The Role of Administrators 3355
The Role of School Faculty and Staff 3355
The Role of Pest Management Personnel 3357
Successful Out-Sourcing of IPM 3357
References 3363
Schreckensteiniidae 3363
Schwarz, Eugene Amandus 3363
References 3363
Sciadoceridae 3363
Sciaridae 3363
Scientific Name 3363
Scientific Names and Other Words from Latin and Greek 3364
Words from Latin and Greek Adopted into English & Singular and Plural Forms 3364
Words that are Considered to be Latin (Not English) 3364
Names of all Higher Categories are Plural: 3366
References 3367
Sciomyziidae 3367
Scirtidae 3367
Sclerite 3367
Sclerogibbidae 3367
Sclerotin 3367
Sclerotization 3367
Scolebythidae 3367
Scoliidae 3367
Scolopidium (pl., scolopidia) 3367
Scolus (pl., scolli) 3367
Scolytidae 3367
Scopa 3368
Scopuridae 3368
Scorpionflies (Mecoptera) 3368
Extant Mecopteran Families and their Continental Distributions 3369
Characteristics and Life History 3369
Biology 3372
References 3373
Scorpions (Class Arachnida, Order Scorpiones) 3374
References 3377
Scouting 3378
Scramble Competition 3378
Scraper 3378
Scrapers 3378
Scraptiidae 3378
Screwworms, Cochliomyia spp. (Diptera: Calliphoridae) 3378
Economic Importance 3379
Screwworm Biology 3379
The Sterile Insect Technique and Screwworm Eradication 3380
Biological Considerations 3380
Monitoring Screwworm Abundance and Program Effectiveness 3381
Historical Aspects of Screwworm Eradication 3381
New World Screwworms in Libya 3382
Risks of Screwworm Incursion 3383
Screwworm Detection and Treatment 3383
References 3383
Scrub Typhus 3384
Scudder, Samuel Hubbard 3384
References 3384
Scutelleridae 3384
Sculpture 3384
Scutate 3384
Scutellum 3384
Scutum 3385
Scuttle Flies, (Diptera: Phoridae) 3385
Scydmaenidae 3385
Scythrididae 3385
Seal Lice 3385
Seaside Earwigs 3385
Sea Spiders (Pycnogonida) 3385
External Anatomy 3386
Cephalothorax 3386
Abdomen 3387
Appendages 3387
Integument 3388
Articulations and Movement 3389
Alimentary Canal, Feeding, and Digestion 3390
Circulatory System 3392
Respiratory and Excretory Systems 3393
Nervous System 3393
Reproductive System and Development 3395
Embryonic Development 3395
Post-Embryonic Development 3396
Classification and Taxonomic Affinity 3398
References 3399
Seaweed Flies 3399
Secondary Pests 3399
Secondary Plant Substance 3399
Secondary Production 3399
Secondary Vector 3399
Sectorial Cross Vein 3399
Sedge Moths (Lepidoptera: Glyphipterigidae) 3399
References 3400
Seed Beetles 3400
Seed Bugs 3400
Seed Chalcids 3400
Seedcorn Maggot or Bean Seed Fly, Delia platura (Meigen) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) 3400
Life History 3400
Damage 3402
Management 3402
References 3403
Seed Predation by Insects 3403
References 3406
Seed Treatment 3406
Segment 3406
Selective Pesticide 3406
Selective Pressure 3406
Self-Regulation 3406
Selys-Longchamps, Michel Edmond De 3407
Reference 3407
Sematuridae 3407
Semelparity 3407
Semelparous 3407
Semilooper 3407
Seminal Vesicle 3407
Semiochemical 3407
Semiochemical Parsimony 3408
Semisocial Behavior 3408
Senescence 3408
Senescent 3408
Sensillum (pl., sensilla) 3408
Sensorium (pl., sensoria) 3408
Sensory Neuron 3408
Sentinel Host 3408
Sepsidae 3409
Septicemia 3409
Septobasidium 3409
Reference 3409
Sequential Sampling 3409
Sericostomatidae 3409
Sericulture 3409
History of Silk Production 3410
Silkworm Culture 3411
Silk Production 3411
References 3412
Serosa 3412
Serrate 3412
Serratia entomophila 3412
References 3413
Serritermitidae 3413
Sesiidae 3413
Sessile 3413
Seta (pl., setae) 3413
Setaceous 3413
Setal Map 3413
Setose 3413
Sex Attractant Pheromones 3413
Chemistry 3414
Pheromone Function 3415
Use of Sex Pheromones for Insect Management 3416
References 3418
Sex Chromosome 3418
Sex Pheromone 3418
Sex Ratio Modification by Cytoplasmic Agents 3418
Cytoplasmic Agents Distort Normal Sex Ratios 3418
Spiroplasmas 3419
L-Form Bacteria 3419
Wolbachia 3419
B Chromosomes and Cytoplasmic Factors 3420
Male Killing in Coccinellidae 3421
Relevant Website 3421
References 3421
Sexual Recombination 3422
Sexual Reproduction 3422
Sexuales 3422
Sexual Selection 3422
References 3423
Sexupara (pl., sexuparae) 3423
Shade Tree Arthropods and Their Management 3424
Arthropods with Sucking Mouthparts 3424
Aphids 3424
Soft Scales 3424
Armored Scales 3426
Leafhoppers 3426
Minor Insect Families 3426
Bugs (Hemiptera) 3426
Spider Mites 3426
Eriophyid Mites 3427
Gall-Making Arthropods 3427
Gall-Making Aphids 3427
Adelgids 3427
Phylloxerans 3427
Psyllids 3427
Eriophyid Mites 3427
Gall Midges 3428
Gall-Making Sawflies 3428
Gall Wasps 3428
Defoliators 3428
Leafminers 3428
Bark Beetles 3428
Wood Borers 3431
Tip and Terminal Borers 3431
Root Damaging Species 3431
References 3431
Soma (pl., somata) 3432
Skiff Beetles 3432
Sharp, David 3432
Reference 3432
Sharpshooters 3432
Sheath 3432
Shelf Life 3432
Shelford, Victor Ernest 3432
Reference 3433
Shellac 3433
Shelter Tubes 3433
Shield-Backed Bugs 3433
Shield-Backed Katydids 3433
Shield Bugs 3433
Shield Bearer Moths (Lepidoptera: Heliozelidae) 3433
References 3434
Shining Flower Beetles 3434
Shining Leaf Chafers 3434
Shining or Shiny 3434
Shiny Head-Standing Moths (Lepidoptera: Argyresthiidae) 3434
References 3434
Ship-Timber Beetles 3435
Shore Bugs 3435
Shore Flies 3435
Short-Faced Scorpionflies 3435
Shorthorned Grasshoppers 3435
Short-Horned Springtails 3435
Short-Winged Flower Beetles 3435
Shredders 3435
Sialidae 3435
Sibling Species 3435
References 3436
Sidedressing 3436
Sierolomorphidae 3436
Sieve Plate 3436
Sigmoid Curve 3436
Sign 3437
Signal Word 3437
Signiphoridae 3437
Sign of Romaña 3437
Signoret, Victor Antoine 3437
Reference 3437
Silent Slantfaced Grasshoppers 3437
Silken Fungus Beetles 3437
Silken-Tube Spiners 3437
Silk 3437
Reference 3438
Silkworms 3438
Silkworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) 3439
References 3440
Silphidae 3440
Silvanid Flat Bark Beetles 3440
Silvanidae 3440
Silverfish (Zygentoma) 3440
Classification 3440
Characteristics 3440
Ecology 3441
References 3441
Silverleaf Whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 3441
References 3443
Silvestri, Filippo 3443
Reference 3443
Simple Eyes 3443
Simple Metamorphosis 3443
Simulidae 3444
Simulium spp., Vectors of Onchocerca volvulus: Life Cycle and Control 3444
References 3446
Siphlaenigmatidae 3446
Siphlonuridae 3446
Siphon 3446
Siphonaptera 3446
Siphunculata 3446
Siphunculus (pl., siphunculi) 3446
Siricidae 3446
Sisyridae 3446
Sixspotted Spider Mite, Eotetranychus sexmaculatus (Riley) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) 3446
Skeletonize 3446
Skin Beetles 3447
Skin Beetles 3447
References 3449
Skipper Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) 3450
References 3450
Skipper Flies 3450
Slavery 3450
Sleeping Sickness or African Trypanosomiasis 3451
References 3454
Slender Springtails 3454
Slug Caterpillar Moths (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) 3454
References 3454
Small Dung Flies 3455
Small Fruit Flies 3455
Small Fruit Pests and Their Management 3455
Blueberries 3456
Pests of Blueberries, Vaccinium spp. (Family Ericaceae) 3456
Blueberry Maggot, Rhagoletis mendax Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae) 3456
Distribution 3456
Biology 3456
Damage 3457
References 3457
Cranberry Fruitworm, Acrobasis vaccinii Riley (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 3457
Distribution 3457
Biology 3457
Damage 3457
IPM Strategies 3458
References 3458
Blueberry Gall Midge, Dasineura oxycoccana (Johnson) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) 3458
Distribution 3458
Biology 3458
Damage 3458
IPM Strategies 3458
References 3459
Cranberries 3460
Pests of Cranberries, Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton (family Ericaceae) 3460
Sparganothis fruitworm, Sparganothis sulfureana (Clemens) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 3460
Distribution 3460
Biology 3460
Damage 3460
IPM Strategies 3460
References 3460
Cranberry Girdler, Chrysoteuchia topiaraia (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 3460
Distribution 3460
Biology 3461
Damage 3461
IPM Strategies 3461
References 3462
Blackheaded Fireworm, Rhopobota naevena (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 3462
Distribution 3462
Biology 3462
Damage 3462
IPM Strategies 3462
References 3462
Grapes 3462
Pests of Grapes, Vitis spp. (Family Vitaceae) 3463
Grape Berry Moth, Endopiza vitana Clemens (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 3463
Distribution 3463
Biology 3463
Damage 3463
IPM Strategies 3463
References 3463
Grape Root Borer, Vitacea polistiformes (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) 3464
Distribution 3464
Biology 3464
Damage 3464
IPM Strategies 3464
Reference 3464
Glassy-Winged Sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagulata (Say) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 3464
Distribution 3464
Biology 3465
Damage 3465
IPM Strategies 3465
References 3465
Grape Leafhoppers, Erythroneura spp. (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) 3465
Distribution 3465
Biology 3465
Damage 3465
IPM Strategies 3467
References 3467
Grape Leaffolder, Desmia funeralis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 3467
Distribution 3467
Biology 3467
Damage 3468
IPM Strategies 3468
References 3468
Strawberries 3468
Pests of Strawberries, Fragaria spp. (Family Rosaceae) 3468
Twospotted Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) 3468
Distribution 3468
Biology 3469
Damage 3469
IPM Strategies 3469
References 3469
Strawberry Sap Beetle, Stelidota geminata (Say) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) 3469
Distribution 3469
Biology 3470
Damage 3470
IPM Strategies 3470
References 3470
Strawberry Bud Weevil (Clipper), Anthonomus signatus (Say) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 3470
Distribution 3470
Biology 3470
Damage 3470
IPM Strategies 3470
References 3471
Tarnished Plant Bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) (Hemiptera: Miridae) 3472
Distribution 3472
Biology 3472
Damage 3472
IPM Strategies 3472
References 3473
Brambles 3473
Pests of Raspberries and Blackberries (Brambles), Rubus spp. (Family Rosaceae) 3473
Raspberry Cane Borer, Oberea bimaculara (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Cerambicidae) 3473
Distribution 3473
Biology 3473
Damage 3473
IPM Strategies 3473
References 3474
Raspberry Fruitworm, Byturus unicolor (Say) (Coleoptera: Byturidae) 3474
Distribution 3474
Biology 3474
Damage 3474
IPM Strategies 3475
Reference 3475
Occasional Pests of Small Fruits 3475
Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 3475
Distribution 3475
Biology 3475
Damage 3475
IPM Strategies 3475
References 3476
Flower Thrips, Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) 3476
Distribution 3476
Biology 3476
Damage 3477
IPM Strategies 3477
References 3477
Small Green Stink Bug, Piezodorus guildinii (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) 3477
References 3478
Small Hive Beetle, Aethina tumida Murray (Nitidulidae: Coleoptera) 3479
Description 3479
Life Cycle 3480
Damage 3481
Control 3481
References 3482
Small Honey Ant, Prenolepis imparis (Say) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 3482
Description 3482
Behavior 3483
Colonies 3483
Nutrition Sources 3484
References 3484
Small Rice Stink Bug, Oebalus poecilus (Dallas) (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) 3484
References 3485
Small RNA Viruses of Invertebrates 3486
Nodaviridae 3486
Tetraviridae 3487
Picorna-Like Viruses 3487
Dicistroviridae (Cricket Paralysis-Like Viruses) 3488
Unclassified Viruses 3488
Pathology of SRVs 3488
Potential for Insect SRVs as Biocontrol Agents and Biopesticides 3489
References 3490
Small Winter Stoneflies 3490
Small-Headed Flies 3490
Smicripidae 3490
Sminthuridae 3490
Smirnoff, Vladimir A. 3490
Reference 3490
Smith, John Bernhardt 3490
References 3491
Smith, Harry Scott 3491
Reference 3491
Smith, Ray F. 3492
Reference 3492
Smoky Moths 3492
Smooth Springtails 3492
Snakeflies (Raphidioptera) 3492
Reference 3493
Snipe Flies 3493
Snodgrass, Robert Evans 3493
References 3493
Snout Beetles 3493
Snout Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Libytheidae) 3493
References 3494
Snout Moths (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 3494
References 3495
Snow Pool Mosquitoes 3495
Snow, Francis Huntington 3496
Reference 3496
Snow Scorpionflies 3496
Soaps as Insecticides 3497
Toxicity of Soaps 3497
Chemical Structure of Fatty Acids 3497
Chemical Structure of Potassium Fatty Acid Salts 3498
Insecticidal Uses of Potassium Fatty Acid Salts 3498
Potential Mode of Action of Potassium Fatty Acid Salts 3500
Cuticle Disruption 3500
Spiracle Blockage and Asphyxiation 3500
Neurotoxins 3500
The Future of Soaps for Pest Control 3501
References 3503
Social Insect Pheromones 3504
Pheromone Glands 3505
Alarm Pheromones 3505
Recruitment Pheromones 3506
Sex Pheromones 3508
Queen Pheromones 3509
Releaser and Primer Pheromones 3510
References 3511
Social Insects 3511
Sociality of Insects 3511
Eusocial Insects 3511
Parasocial Insects 3512
Subsocial Insects 3512
References 3516
Social Parasites 3516
Sociobiology (in Insects) 3516
Sod Webworm 3516
Soft-Bodied Plant Beetles 3516
Soft Scales 3516
Soft-Winged Flower Beetles 3516
Soil Fumigation 3516
Historical Background 3517
Fumigant Spectrum of Activity 3518
Physical and Chemical Properties 3519
Mode of Action and Lethal Dose 3521
Factors Affecting Efficacy 3522
Soil Moisture 3522
Soil Temperature 3522
Soil Texture 3523
Compaction, Clods, Organic Matter 3523
Phytotoxicity 3523
Fumigant Containment 3524
Field Application Equipment 3525
Application 3526
Risks to Environment and Human Health 3526
Reference 3527
Soil Mites (Acari: Oribatida and Others) 3527
References 3530
Soldier Beetles 3530
Soldier Flies 3530
Solenophages 3530
Solitary Behavior 3530
Solitary Midges 3530
Solitary Parasitoid 3530
Soma (pl., somata) 3531
Soldier 3531
Somabrachyidae 3531
Somatic Cells 3531
Somatiidae 3531
Sooty Mold 3531
Sorosporella 3531
References 3532
Sound Production in the Cicadoidea 3532
References 3534
Southern Bacterial Wilt 3534
Southern Blotting 3534
Southern Chinch Bug, Blissus insularis Barber (Hemiptera: Blissidae) 3534
Southern Green Stink Bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) 3535
References 3536
Soybean Aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 3537
Life History of Soybean Aphid 3537
Damage to Soybean 3538
Natural Enemies 3538
Management 3539
Economic Threshold and Economic Injury Level 3539
Sampling 3539
Biological Control 3540
Insecticides 3540
Host Plant Resistance 3540
References 3541
Sparkling Archaic Sun Moths (Lepidoptera: Eriocraniidae) 3541
References 3541
Spatulate 3541
Spear-Winged Flies 3541
Specialist 3541
Speciation Processes Among Insects 3542
References 3544
Species 3544
Species Areas-Relationship 3544
Species Complex 3544
Species Concepts 3544
Theoretical Versus Operational Species Concepts 3545
Theoretical Species Concepts 3545
Operational Species Concepts 3545
Species Concepts in Use Today 3545
Issues of Special Concern to Entomologists 3547
The Importance of Selecting Appropriate Species Concepts 3547
References 3547
Species Diversity 3547
Species Inquirenda 3548
Species Novum 3548
Species Odor 3548
Species Richness 3548
Specific Name 3548
Sperm Precedence 3548
Spermatheca 3548
Spermatid (pl., spermatozoa) 3548
Spermatocyte 3548
Spermatogenesis 3549
Spermatogonia 3549
Spermatophore 3549
Spermatophylax 3549
Sphaeritidae 3549
Sphaeroceridae 3549
Sphaeropsocidae 3549
Sphecidae 3549
Sphecology 3549
Sphecophile 3549
Spherulocyte 3549
Sphindidae 3549
Sphragis 3549
Reference 3550
Spicula, Spicule, or Spiculum 3550
Spider Behavior and Value in Agricultural Landcapes 3550
Importance of Spiders in Agriculture 3551
Feeding Behavior 3552
Conservation 3553
References 3554
Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) 3554
Evolution and Taxonomy 3554
Spider Phylogeny 3556
Arachnid Characteristics 3558
Silk Production 3558
Prey Capture 3560
Spider Venoms of Medical Importance 3560
Digestion of Prey 3561
Excretion 3562
Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 3562
Sensory Setae and Pits 3563
Vision 3564
Central Nervous System 3565
Sex Among the Spiders 3566
Brood Care, Hatching and Dispersal 3569
Spiders as Predators 3571
References 3571
Spielman, Andrew 3571
Spindle-Shaped 3572
Spine 3572
Spinose 3572
Spiny-Headed Worms 3572
Spined Soldier Bug, Podisus maculiventris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae, Asopinae) 3572
References 3574
Spiny Shore Bugs 3574
Sphingidae 3574
Spinneret 3575
Sphinx Moths 3575
Spider Beetles 3575
Spider Mites 3575
Spider Wasps 3575
Spine-Tailed Earwigs 3575
Spinose Ear Tick, Otobius megnini (Duges) (Acari: Ixodidae) 3575
Spiny Rat Lice 3575
Spiracle (pl., spiracles or spiraculae) 3575
Spiracular Bristles 3576
Spiracular Gill 3576
Spiracular Plate 3576
Spirea Aphid, Aphis spiraecola Patch (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 3576
Spittlebugs (Hemiptera: Cercopoidea) 3576
Biology and Behavior 3576
Ecology 3577
Grass-Feeding Neotropical Spittlebugs 3578
Life Cycle 3578
Agricultural Ecology 3579
Economic Impact 3579
Pest Management 3579
References 3579
Splenetic Fever 3580
Spongillaflies (Neuroptera: Sisyridae) 3580
Taxonomy and Distribution 3580
Natural History 3580
Collecting Methods 3582
Preservation 3582
References 3582
Spore 3583
Life History 3583
Damage 3585
Management 3585
References 3586
Spot Treatment 3586
Spreader 3586
Spread-Winged Damselflies 3586
Spring Stoneflies 3586
Springtails (Collembola) 3586
Classification 3587
Characteristics 3587
Biology 3588
References 3588
Spruce Budworms, Choristoneura Lederer (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) 3588
Life History 3590
Outbreaks and Damage 3590
Population Dynamics 3592
Weather 3592
Host Plants 3593
Natural Enemies 3593
Management 3594
References 3595
Spur 3595
Spurious Vein 3595
Spurthroated Grasshoppers 3595
Squash Bug, Anasa tristis (Degeer) (Hemiptera: Coreidae) 3595
Description and Life Cycle 3595
Eggs 3595
Nymph 3596
Adult 3596
Host Plants 3596
Damage 3596
Natural Enemies 3596
Management 3597
References 3597
Squash Vine Borer, Melittia cucurbitae (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidaae) 3597
Life History 3598
Damage 3599
Management 3599
References 3600
Squirrel Lice 3600
ssDNA 3600
Stabilimentum 3600
Stability 3600
Stable Fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) 3600
Biology 3601
Control 3602
References 3603
Stable Transformation 3603
Stag Beetles 3603
Stadium 3603
Stål, Carl 3603
References 3603
Stalk or Stem-Infecting Fungi 3603
Stalk-Eyed Flies 3603
Staphylinidae 3604
Staphylinidae Dermatitis 3604
Steinhaus, Edward Arthur 3604
References 3604
Stem Cells 3604
Stemmata 3604
Stemmocryptidae 3604
Stem Sawflies 3604
Stenocephalidae 3605
Stenopelmatidae 3605
Stenophagous 3605
Stenopsocidae 3605
Stenostritidae 3605
Stenotrachelidae 3605
Stephanidae 3605
Stephanocircidae 3605
Stereokinesis 3605
Sterile Insect Control 3605
Sterile Insect Release Method (Sirm) 3605
Sterile Insect Technique 3605
General Overview 3606
The Theoretical Basis of the SIT and Screwworm Eradication 3608
Physiological and Cytogenetic Bases of Sterility 3614
Reproductive Physiology of Male Insects 3614
Reproductive Physiology of Female Insects 3616
Causes of Sterility 3618
Infecundity 3618
Inability or Failure to Mate 3618
Sperm Inactivation 3619
Dominant Lethal Mutations 3619
Aspermia 3620
Transfer of a Chemosterilant During Mating 3620
Inherited Sterility in Lepidoptera 3621
Appropriate Applications and Some Limitations of the SIT 3622
Economic Analysis of SIT Programs 3625
Size, Coordination and Economies of Scale 3625
Benefit-Cost Assessment and Discounting Net Returns 3626
Who Should Pay for SIT Programs? Or How Much Does Each Group of Beneficiaries Gain? 3626
References 3627
Stern, Vernon M 3627
Reference 3628
Sternite 3628
Sternum 3628
Stick Insects 3628
Stick and Leaf Insects (Phasmida) 3628
References 3629
Stick Katydids 3630
Sticky Trap 3630
Stictococcidae 3630
Stigma 3630
Stiletto Flies 3630
Stilt Bugs (Hemiptera: Berytidae) 3630
References 3631
Stilt-Legged Flies 3631
Stink Bugs 3631
Stink Bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Emphasizing Economic Importance 3631
References 3634
Stipes 3634
Scarab Beetles 3634
Scenopinidae 3634
SchmidtŁs Layer 3634
St Louis Encephalitis 3634
The Virus Transmission Cycle 3635
Symptomology and Treatment 3635
Preventing Infection 3636
References 3636
Stochastic Model 3636
Stoma (pl., stomata) 3637
Stomach Poison 3637
Stomatogastric Nervous System 3637
Stomodeum 3637
Stonebrood 3637
Reference 3637
Stoneflies (Plecoptera) 3637
Family Capniidae (Small Winter Stoneflies) 3639
Family Leuctridae (Rolledwinged Stoneflies) 3640
Family Nemouridae (Nemourid Stoneflies) 3640
Family Taeniopterygidae (Winter Stoneflies) 3640
Family Chloroperlidae (Green Stoneflies) 3640
Family Perlidae (Common Stoneflies) 3640
Family Perlodidae (Perlodid Stoneflies) 3640
Peltoperlidae (Roach-Like Stoneflies) 3641
Family Pteronarcyidae (Giant Stoneflies) 3641
References 3641
Stop Codon 3641
Storage Protein Receptors 3641
Dipteran Storage Protein Receptors 3642
Lepidopteran Storage Protein Receptors 3642
References 3644
Storage Proteins 3644
Hexamerins: Structures and Evolutionary Relationships 3644
Hexamerins in Nymphs and Larvae 3646
Hexamerins in Adults 3647
Other Hexamerin Functions 3649
Other Storage Proteins 3650
References 3650
Stored Grain and Flour Insects and Their Management 3650
Environmental Factors 3651
Damage 3651
Monitoring and Control 3652
Grain Weevils 3652
Grain Borers 3653
Grain Beetles 3654
Flour Beetles 3655
Mealworms 3655
Dermestid Beetles 3656
Other Beetles 3656
Lepidoptera 3656
References 3657
Straight-Snouted Weevils 3657
Stratified Sampling 3657
Stratiomyidae 3657
Strawberry Bud Weevil, Anthonomus signatus (Say) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 3658
Strawberry Sap Beetle, Stelidnota geminata (Say) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) 3658
Streblidae 3658
Strepsiptera 3658
Morphology 3659
Male 3659
Female 3659
Immature Stages 3661
Host Associations 3662
References 3662
Strepsiptera 3663
Stress-Induced Host Plant Free Amino Acids and Insects 3663
Abiotic Plant Stress Factors and Faas 3663
Biotic Plant Stress Factors and Faas 3664
Weed Competition 3664
Fungi and Bacteria 3664
Viruses 3664
Plant Stress, Faas, and Phytophagous Nematodes 3665
Plant Stress, FAAs, and Phytophagous Insects 3666
References 3667
Stria 3667
Striate 3667
Stridulate 3667
Stridulating Slantfaced Grasshoppers 3667
Strigilation 3667
Strip Cropping 3667
Stripe 3667
Striped Earwigs 3668
Striped Walkingsticks 3668
Structural Gene 3668
Structural Genomics 3668
Structural Fumigation 3668
Target Pests 3668
Fumigants 3669
Transport Equipment 3669
Inspection and Measurement 3670
Exterior and Interior Preparation and Sealing 3670
Introduction of Chloropicrin and Sulfuryl Fluoride 3670
Monitoring, Aeration and Clearance 3672
Hazards and Limitations of Structural Fumigation 3672
References 3674
Structural Pest 3674
Stylet 3674
Stylet-Borne Virus 3674
Stylopidae 3674
Stylopization 3674
Stylus 3674
Subalare 3674
Subcosta 3674
Subcosta Fold 3674
Subcuticular Space 3674
Subdorsal 3674
Subesophageal Ganglion 3674
Subfamily 3674
Subgalea 3675
Subgenital Plate 3675
Subimago 3676
Submedial Arc 3676
Submentum 3676
Subsocial Behavior 3676
Subspecies 3676
Subspiracular 3676
Subterranean Termites 3676
Succession 3676
Sucking Lice 3676
Sugarcane Pests and Their Management 3677
History of Sugarcane 3677
Sugarcane Production in the USA 3677
Sugarcane Botany 3678
Pest Descriptions 3678
Acari 3678
Collembola 3679
Orthoptera 3679
Isoptera 3679
Psocoptera 3679
Hemiptera 3679
Acleridae 3679
Aphididae 3679
Cercopidae 3680
Cicadellidae 3680
Cixiidae 3680
Coccidae 3680
Cydnidae 3680
Delphacidae 3680
Diaspididae 3681
Pseudococcidae 3681
Tingidae 3682
Thysanoptera 3682
Coleoptera 3682
Buprestidae 3682
Chrysomelidae 3683
Curculionidae 3683
Elateridae 3683
Scarabaeidae 3684
Diptera 3684
Lepidoptera 3684
Crambidae and Pyralidae 3685
Sugarcane Pest Management 3685
Management Strategies 3685
References 3694
Sugar-Feeding in Blood-Feeding Flies 3694
Sugar Meal Sources 3694
Black Flies and Sugar Sources 3695
Mosquitoes and Sugar Sources 3695
Tabanids and Sugar Sources 3695
Role and Timing of Sugar-Feeding 3695
Historical Considerations 3696
References 3696
Sulcate 3696
Sulcus (pl., sulci) 3697
Sulfurs 3697
Summit Disease 3697
Sun Moths (Lepidoptera: Heliodinidae) 3697
References 3697
Sunn Pest 3698
Supergene 3698
Supernumerary 3698
Superorder 3698
Superorganism Concept 3698
Superparasitism 3698
Supersedure 3698
Supplementary Reproductive 3698
Supraspiracular 3698
Surfactant 3698
Survivorship 3698
Survivorship Curve 3698
Suture 3699
Swallowtail Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) 3699
References 3699
Swallowtail Moths (Lepidoptera: Uraniidae) 3700
References 3700
Swammerdam, Jan 3700
References 3701
Swarming 3701
Sweetpotato and Silverleaf Whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 3701
Plant Injury 3702
Biology 3702
Host Range 3703
Management 3703
Natural Enemies 3704
Organizations, Literature and Web Sites 3704
References 3704
Morphology 3705
Biology 3705
Distribution 3705
Food Plants 3706
Conclusion 3706
References 3706
Sweetpotato Weevil, Cylas formicarius (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Brentidae) 3706
Life History 3707
Damage 3708
Management 3709
References 3710
Sweetpotato Weevils and their Eradication Programs in Japan 3710
References 3711
Swezey, Otto Herman 3711
Reference 3712
Swifts 3712
Swimmeret 3712
Sword-Tail Crickets 3712
Sylvatic 3712
Sylveira Caldeira, João Da 3712
References 3712
Symbiont 3713
Symbionts of Insects 3713
Mitochondria are Intracellular Symbionts 3713
Multiple Symbionts May be Present 3713
Symbiont Function(s) 3714
Gut Symbionts 3715
Bugs Within Bugs Within Mealybugs 3717
Wolbachia 3717
Polydnaviruses as Symbionts 3720
References 3721
Symbiosis 3721
Symbiosis Between Planthoppers and Microorganisms 3721
References 3724
Symbiotic Viruses of Parasitic Wasps 3724
Ascoviridae 3726
Baculoviridae 3727
Poxviridae 3727
Picornaviridae and Picornalike Viruses 3728
Reoviridae 3729
Rhabdoviridae 3730
Summary and Conclusion 3730
References 3731
Sympatric 3731
Sympatric Speciation 3731
Symphylans (Class Symphyla) 3731
References 3732
Symptom 3732
Synanthropic 3732
Synapse, pl., synapses 3733
Synchroa Beetles 3733
Synchroidae 3733
Synchronous Muscle 3733
Syndrome 3733
Synecology 3733
Synergism 3733
References 3735
Synergist 3735
Reference 3735
Synlestidae 3735
Synomone 3736
Syringogastridae 3736
Syrphid Flies 3736
Syrphidae 3736
Systematics 3736
Systematic Sampling 3736
Systemic 3736
Szent-Ivány, József Gyula Hubertus 3736
References 3737
Silverfish (Thysanura) 0
Classification 0
Characteristics 0
Ecology 0
References 0
fulltext_20.pdf 3739
Tabanidae 3739
Tachinidae 3739
Tachinid Flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) 3739
Classification 3739
Life Stages 3741
Adult 3741
Egg 3742
Larval instars 3744
Puparium 3745
Distribution and Evolution 3745
Hosts 3746
Host Location 3747
Mate Finding 3748
Ecology 3749
Biological Control 3750
References 3750
Tachiniscidae 3750
Taenidium (pl., Taenidia) 3751
Taeniopterygidae 3751
Tagma (pl., Tagmata) 3751
Taiga Tick, Ixodes persulcatus Schulze (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae) 3751
References 3754
Tally Threshold 3754
Tanaostigmatidae 3754
Tandem Running 3754
Tangle-Veined Flies 3754
Tanning 3755
Tanoceridae 3755
Tanyderidae 3755
Tanypezid Flies 3755
Tanypezidae 3755
Tanzaniophasmatidae 3755
Tarnished Plant Bug, Lygus lineolaris Palisot De Beauvois (Hemiptera: Miridae) 3755
Life Stages 3755
Egg 3755
Nymphs 3755
First Instar 3756
Second Instar 3756
Third Instar 3757
Fourth Instar 3757
Fifth Instar 3757
Adult 3757
Life Cycle 3757
Attractants 3761
Pest Host Relationships 3761
Natural Enemies 3761
Damage 3761
References 3763
Taro Caterpillar or Rice Cutworm, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) 3763
Life History 3763
Damage 3764
Management 3764
References 3764
Tarsal Claw 3764
Tarsomeres 3764
Tarsus (pl., Tarsi) 3765
Taste and Contact Chemoreception 3765
Feeding 3766
Oviposition 3768
Pheromone Detection 3768
References 3769
Taxis (pl., Taxes) 3769
Taxon (pl., Taxa) 3769
Taxonomy 3769
Teaching and Training Entomology: Institutional Models 3769
The Land Grant System: USA 3770
Training and Visit (T&V): World Bank 3772
Farming Systems: United States Agency for International Development 3773
Training-Driven Research: Indonesian Integrated Pest Management 3775
Farmer Participatory Research: CGIAR Network 3776
An Example 3779
Under the Land-Grant Model 3779
Under the T&V Model 3779
Under the Farming Systems Model 3779
Under the Training-Driven Research Model 3780
Under the Farmer Participatory
Research Model 3780
Some General Conclusions 3780
References 3781
Teaching Entomology: A Review of Techniques 3781
Entomology and Higher Education 3782
Teaching Entomology at the University Level 3783
The Socratic, Discussion Approach 3783
The Lecture/Lab Approach 3785
Internships 3788
Field-Based Courses 3789
Extra-University Models 3790
The Farmer Field School Approach 3790
Cross Style Comparisons 3792
References 3793
Teak Moths (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae) 3793
References 3793
Technical Grade 3793
Tegmen (pl., Tegmina) 3793
Tegula 3794
Telegeusidae 3794
Telephone-Pole Beetles 3794
Teloganellidae 3794
Teloganodidae 3794
Telomere 3794
Telopodite 3794
Telmophages 3794
Telson 3794
Template 3794
Tenaculum 3794
Tenebrionidae 3794
Teneral 3794
Tent Caterpillars 3795
Tent Caterpillars, Malacosoma spp (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) 3795
Life Cycle and Behavioral Ecology 3795
Economic Importance and Caterpillar Outbreaks 3798
References 3799
Tenthredinidae 3800
Tentorium 3800
Tephritidae 3800
Teratembiidae 3800
Teratomyzidae 3800
Tergum 3800
Termen 3800
Terminal Arborization 3800
Terminal Filament 3800
Termitaphididae 3801
Termitarium 3801
Termites (Isoptera) 3801
Phylogeny and Fossils 3802
Description of Important Taxa 3802
Diversity and Distribution 3803
Morphology 3805
Life Cycle and Behavior 3806
Defense Mechanisms and Natural Enemies 3807
Ecology 3809
Termites as Pests 3810
Collecting 3810
References 3810
Termites (Isoptera) in South America 3811
Taxonomy 3811
Family Kalotermitidae 3811
Family Rhinotermitidae 3811
Family Serritermitidae 3811
Family Termitidae 3811
Family Termopsidae 3814
Vegetation Zones of South America and Their Termite Fauna 3814
Termites as Urban and Structural Pests in South America 3817
Termites as Agricultural Pests in South America 3818
References 3818
Termitidae 3818
Termitology 3818
Termitophile 3818
Termopsidae 3818
Territorial Pheromone 3818
Tertiary Period 3819
Tessaratomidae 3819
Test 3819
Testicular Follicles 3819
Testis (pl., Testes) 3819
Tethinid Flies 3819
Tethinidae 3819
Tetracampidae 3819
Tetratomidae 3820
Tetrigidae 3820
Tettigarctidae 3820
Tettigometridae 3820
Tettigoniidae 3820
Texas Beetles 3820
Texas Cattle Fever 3820
Texas Citrus Mite, Eutetranychus banksi McGregor (Acari: Tetranychidae) 3820
Thanatosis 3820
Thaumaleidae 3820
Thaumastellidae 3820
Thaumastocoridae 3821
Theileria 3821
Theileriosis 3821
Thelytokous Parthenogenesis 3821
Theochodaeid Scarab Beetles 3821
Therevidae 3821
Thermoregulation in Insects 3821
Behavior 3822
Physiology 3822
References 3824
Thermotaxis 3824
Thick-Headed Flies 3824
Third Generation Insecticide 3824
Thomas, Cyrus 3824
References 3824
Thomson, Carl Gustav 3825
References 3825
Thoracic Plate 3825
Thorax 3825
Thorax of Hexapods 3825
References 3831
Thripidae 3832
Thrips-Parasitic Nematodes 3832
Taxonomy, Host Range and Distribution 3832
Biology and Life Cycle 3832
Reference 3833
Thrips (Thysanoptera) 3833
References 3835
Throscidae 3835
Thunberg, Carl Peter 3835
Reference 3836
Thuringiensin 3836
Thyatiridae 3836
Thyreocoridae 3836
Thyretidae 3836
Thyrididae 3836
Thysanoptera 3836
Thysanura 3836
Thysanuriform Larva 3836
Tibia (pl, Tibiae) 3836
Tick-Borne Encephalitis 3837
Tick Paralysis 3837
References 3839
Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) 3839
Classification of Ticks: The Order Ixodida 3839
Argasidae 3839
Nuttallielidae 3840
Ixodidae 3840
External Morphology of Ticks 3840
Host Seeking and Tick Feeding 3844
Physiology of Ticks 3847
Digestive System 3847
Osmoregulatory and Excretory Organs 3847
Water Loss 3847
Reproduction 3847
Semiochemicals 3848
Life Cycles and Habitats of Ticks 3848
Postembryonic Development 3848
Feeding 3848
Mating and Reproductive Cycles 3849
Hosts 3849
Habitats 3850
Dispersion 3851
Ticks of Medical and Veterinary Importance 3851
Economic Importance of Ticks 3856
Control of Ticks 3864
Pesticides 3864
Vaccines 3864
Environmental Management 3864
Protecting Humans 3865
References 3865
Ticks as Vectors of Pathogens 3865
References 3868
Tiger Beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Collyrinae and Cicindelinae) 3868
Taxonomy 3868
Modern Classification of Tiger Beetles 3870
Description 3871
Species Numbers and Distribution 3873
Fossil Records 3873
Reproduction 3873
Karyology 3875
Development 3875
Survival from Heat and Flooding 3876
Activity 3876
Predators and Parasites 3877
Sound Production 3878
Sound Detection 3878
Defensive Behavior 3878
Phenotypic Variation 3878
Sexual Dimorphism 3878
Tiger Beetles in Folklore and Religion 3879
Tiger Beetles on Stamps 3879
Conservation 3880
References 3882
Tiger Moths (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) 3882
References 3883
Tillyard, Robin John 3883
Reference 3883
Timema Walkingsticks 3884
Timemidae 3884
Timarcha latreille (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae, Chrysomelinae) 3884
Conclusions 3887
References 3887
Tineid Moths 3887
Tineidae 3888
Tineodidae 3888
Tingidae 3888
Tiphiidae 3888
Tiphiid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae) 3888
External Morphology 3888
Life History and Habits 3889
Predators and Parasites 3889
Importance in Biological Control 3889
References 3890
Tipulidae 3890
Tischeriidae 3891
Toad Bugs 3891
Tobacco 3891
Toe Biters 3891
Togossitidae 3891
Tolerance 3891
Tomato Big Bud 3891
Life History 3891
Damage 3894
Management 3895
References 3895
Tomato Rust Mite, Aculops lycopersici (Massee) (Acari: Eriophyidae) 3895
Tomoceridae 3895
Tonic Receptors 3895
Tooth-Necked Beetles 3896
Tormogen Cell 3896
Torre-Bueno, José Rollin De La 3896
Reference 3896
Tortoise Beetles 3896
Tortoise Scales 3896
Tortricid Moths 3896
Tortricidae 3896
Torymidae 3896
Townes, Jr., Henry K 3896
Reference 3897
Toxemia 3897
Toxicant 3897
Toxicity 3897
Toxicogenic Insects 3897
Trachea (pl., Tracheae) 3897
Tracheal Gill 3897
Tracheal Mite, Acarapis woodi (Rennie) (Acariformes: Tarsonemidae) 3898
History 3899
Diagnosis and Control 3899
References 3899
Tracheal System and Respiratory Gas Exchange 3899
Discontinuous Breathing 3902
Gas Exchange in Aquatic Insects 3903
Non-Respiratory Functions of the Tracheal System 3904
References 3905
Tracheole 3905
Trachypachidae 3905
Trade Name 3905
Trail Pheromone 3905
Transcript 3905
Transcription 3905
Transformation 3905
Transgene 3905
Transgenic Arthropods for Pest Management Programs 3905
Sex and the Sorted Insects: A Case Study 3906
Why Use Transgenic Methods? 3908
Components of a Genetic Manipulation Project 3910
What Genes are Available to Insert? 3911
Risk Assessments of Transgenic Arthropods 3912
Relative Risks 3912
Horizontal Gene Transfer 3913
Steps in Developing a Transgenic Arthropod 3915
Could ŁGene SilencingŽ Reduce Program Effectiveness? 3916
References 3916
Transgenic Organism 3917
Translocation 3917
Transmission of Plant Diseases by Insects 3917
Role of Insects in Bacterial Diseases of Plants 3920
Bacterial Soft Rots 3921
Bacterial Wilts of Plants 3922
Bacterial Wilt of Cucurbits 3922
Bacterial Wilt of Corn 3924
Southern Bacterial Wilt of Solanaceous and Other Crops 3924
Fire Blight of Pears, Apples and Other Rosaceous Plants 3924
Olive Knot 3925
Insect Transmission of Xylem-Inhabiting Bacteria 3926
Pierce's Disease of Grape 3926
Insect Transmission of Phloem-Inhabiting Bacteria 3928
Citrus Greening Disease 3928
Bunchy Top of Papaya Disease 3928
Cucurbit Yellow Vine Disease 3929
Insect Transmission of Plant Diseases Caused by Mollicutes 3929
Aster Yellows 3930
Tomato Big Bud 3930
Apple Proliferation 3930
Pear Decline 3931
Lethal Yellowing of Coconut Palms 3931
Corn Stunt 3932
Citrus Stubborn Disease 3932
Insect Transmission of Fungi 3932
Root-Infecting Fungi 3932
Stalk or Stem-Infecting Fungi 3932
Trunk and Branch Canker-Causing Fungi 3933
Sooty Molds 3933
Wood Rots 3934
Wood-Stain Diseases 3934
Vascular Wilts 3934
Oak Wilt 3934
Dutch Elm Disease 3935
Foliar Diseases 3936
Powdery Mildews 3937
Rust Diseases 3937
Diseases of Buds and Blossoms 3937
Anther Smut of Carnations 3937
Blossom Blight of Red Clover 3938
Ergot of Cereals and Grasses 3938
Anthracnose Disease of Musa Balsamiana 3938
Flower Spot of Azalea 3938
Diseases of Fruit and Seeds in the Field 3938
Rots of Fleshy Fruits 3938
Fig Rots 3938
Endosepsis of Figs 3938
Souring of Figs 3939
Fig Smuts and Molds 3939
Brown Rot of Stone and Pome Fruits 3939
Gray Mold of Grapes 3939
Black Pod of Cacao 3939
Boll Rots of Cotton 3940
Coffee Bean Rot 3940
Molds and Decays of Grains and Legumes 3940
Molds and Decays of Harvested Fruits and Seeds 3941
Insect Transmission of Plant Pathogenic Nematodes 3941
Pine Wilt 3941
Red Ring of Coconut Palms 3942
Insect Transmission of Plant Pathogenic Protozoa 3942
Insect Transmission of Plant Pathogenic Viruses 3943
Aphids and Aphid-Transmitted Viruses 3943
Virus-Vector Relationships 3944
Stylet-Borne Non-Persistent Transmission 3944
Semi-Persistent Viruses 3944
Persistent Viruses 3945
Persistent Circulative Viruses 3945
Persistent Propagative Viruses 3945
Leafhoppers and Planthoppers, and Transmission of Plant Viruses 3945
Virus-Vector Relationships 3946
Semi-Persistent Transmission 3946
Persistent Transmission 3946
Circulative Viruses 3946
Propagative Viruses 3946
Whitefly Transmission of Plant Viruses 3947
Thrips Transmission of Plant Viruses 3947
Mealybug and Other Bug Transmission of Plant Viruses 3947
Virus Transmission by Insects That Have Biting/Chewing Mouthparts 3948
Virus Transmission by Mites 3948
Virus Transmission by Pollinating Insects 3948
Summary 3948
References 3949
Transmission of Xylella fastidiosa Bacteria by Xylem-Feeding Insects 3949
References 3950
Transmission Threshold 3951
Transovarial Transmission 3951
Transovum Transmission 3951
Transpiration 3951
Transposable Element 3951
Transposon 3951
Transstadial Transmission 3951
Trap Crop 3951
Traps for Capturing Insects 3951
Trap Types 3952
Traps for Flying Insects and
Wind-Blown Insects 3952
Interception Traps 3952
Sticky Traps 3952
Three-Dimensional Triangular Traps, Diamond Traps and Wing Traps 3955
Water Pan Traps 3955
Bucket Traps 3955
Bucket Traps with Funnels 3956
Cone Traps 3957
Traps for Walking Arthropods and Soil-Dwelling Insects 3957
Pitfall Traps 3957
Grain Probe Traps 3957
Shelter Traps 3958
Emergence Traps 3958
Solar Bait Stations 3958
Traps for Aquatic Insects 3959
Interception Traps 3959
Emergence Traps 3959
Attractant Cues 3959
Visual Cues 3959
Color 3959
Shape 3960
Light 3960
Chemical Cues 3961
Food/Host Lures 3961
Pheromone Lures 3961
Parapheromone Lures 3962
Oviposition Lures 3962
Acoustic Cues 3962
Automated Monitoring Systems 3963
Trap Uses in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 3964
References 3965
Traumatic Insemination 3965
Tree Crickets 3965
Trehalose 3965
Treherne, John E 3965
Reference 3965
Treehoppers (Hemiptera: Membracidae) 3965
External Morphology 3966
Life History and Habits 3966
Predators and Parasites 3967
Economic Importance 3968
Control 3968
References 3968
Trench Fever 3968
Triassic Period 3968
Trichobothrium (pl., Trichobothria) 3968
Trichoceridae 3968
Trichodectidae 3969
Trichogrammatidae 3969
Trichomes 3969
Trichomes and Insects 3969
Types and Functions of Trichomes 3969
Trichomes as an Ovipositional Substrate 3970
Impact of Trichomes on Herbivores 3970
Impact of Trichomes on Parasitoids and Predators 3971
Conclusions 3972
References 3972
Trichomycetes 3972
Non-Fungal Trichomycetes 3973
Order Amoebidiales 3974
Order Eccrinales 3974
Fungal Trichomycetes (Class Trichomycetes) 3974
Order Asellariales 3974
Order Harpellales 3974
Organisms that Might Resemble Trichomycetes 3976
References 3976
Trichopsocidae 3976
Trichoptera 3976
Tricorythidae 3976
Tridactylidae 3976
Trigonalyidae 3977
Trimenoponidae 3977
Trinotonidae 3977
Triozidae 3977
Tritocerebrum 3977
Tritrophic Interactions 3977
Plant Characteristics that Affect Herbivores and Indirectly Affect Natural Enemies of the Herbivores 3979
Plant Characteristics that Directly Affect the Effectiveness of Natural Enemies of Herbivores 3980
Effect of Dietary Specialization 3981
Relative Importance of Plant and Natural Enemies to Herbivore Fitness 3983
The PlantŁs Perspective: A Paradox in Its Defense Against Herbivores and the Answer in a Tritrophic Context 3984
Hidden Players 3984
Theories on Plant Defense 3984
Applied Aspects 3985
Conclusion 3986
References 3986
Triungulin 3987
Triunguloid Larva 3987
Trochanter 3987
Trochantin 3987
Trochiliphagidae 3987
Troctopsocidae 3987
Trogidae 3987
Trogiidae 3988
Trophallaxis 3988
Trophic Egg 3988
Trophic Level 3988
Trophic Structure 3988
Trophobiosis 3988
Trophogenic Polymorphism 3988
Tropical Burnet Moths (Lepidoptera: Lacturidae) 3989
References 3989
Tropical Carpenterworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Metarbelidae) 3989
References 3990
Tropical Ermine Moths (Lepidoptera: Attevidae) 3990
References 3990
Tropical Fruit Pests and their Management 3990
Annona Fruits (Annonaceae Family) 3991
Avocado, Persea americana Mill (Lauraceae family) 3992
Banana and Plantain, Musa spp. (Musaceae Family) 3992
Barbados Cherry or Acerola, Malpighia glabra (L) (Malpighiaceae Family) 3994
Carambola, Averrhoa carambola L (Oxalidaceae Family) 3994
Durian, Durio zibethinus Murray (Bombacaceae Family) 3995
Guava, Psidium guajava L (Myrtaceae Family) 3995
Litchi and Longan (Sapindaceae Family) 3996
Mango, Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae Family) 3997
Mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L (Guttiferae Family) 3998
Papaya, Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae Family) 3999
Passion Fruit (Passifloraceae Family) 4000
Pineapple, Ananas comosus (L) Merr (Bromeliaceae Family) 4000
Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum Blume (Sapindaceae Family) 4001
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Tropical Fruit 4002
Sampling and Monitoring 4002
Economic Thresholds 4002
Chemical Control 4002
Attractants (Pheromones) 4002
Crop Sanitation 4003
Biological Control 4003
Host Plant Resistance 4003
Cultural Practices 4003
References 4003
Tropical Fruitworm Moths (Lepidoptera: Copromorphidae) 4004
References 4004
Tropical Lattice Moths (Lepidoptera: Arrhenophanidae) 4004
References 4004
Tropical Longhorned Moths (Lepidoptera: Lecithoceridae) 4005
References 4005
Tropical Plume Moths (Lepidoptera: Oxychirotidae) 4005
References 4006
Tropical Slug Caterpillar Moths (Lepidoptera: Dalceridae) 4006
References 4006
Tropical Theileriosis 4006
Tropiduchidae 4007
Trout Stream Beetles 4007
True Katydids 4007
Trumpet 4007
Trumpet Leafminer Moths (Lepidoptera: Tischeriidae) 4007
References 4007
Trumpet-Net Caddisflies 4007
Truncate 4007
Trunk and Canker-Causing Fungi 4007
Trypanosomes 4008
General Life Stages of Trypanosomes 4009
Pathogenic Trypanosomes in Humans 4009
Trypanosoma rhodesiense 4009
Trypanosoma gambiense 4010
Trypanosoma cruzi 4010
Trypanosomes in Animals 4012
Recent Findings and Issues Associated with the Trypanosomes 4012
Civil and Political Unrest 4012
Competing National Health Priorities 4012
Lack of Funding Support to Aid in the Availability of New Drugs, Vector Control and Diagnostic Tests 4012
References 4013
Trypanosomiasis 4013
Trypsin Modulating Oostatic Factor 4013
Tsetse Flies, Glossina spp (Diptera: Glossinidae) 4013
Animal Sleeping Sickness 4013
Human Sleeping Sickness 4014
Tsetse Biology 4014
Tsetse Behavior and Ecology in Relation to Control 4015
Approaches to Fly Management 4016
References 4017
Tube-Making Caddisflies 4017
Tubercle 4017
Tube Moths (Lepidoptera: Acrolophidae) 4017
References 4018
Turgor 4018
Tullgren Funnel 4018
Tularemia 4018
Tumbling Flower Beetles 4019
Tungidae 4019
Turfgrass Insects of the United States: Biology and Management 4019
Foliar and Stem Inhabitants: Surface Chewing and Sucking Insects 4020
Armyworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 4020
Armyworm, Pseudaletia unipuncta (Hawthorn) 4020
Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J E Smith) 4023
Chinch Bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) 4024
Hairy Chinch Bug, Blissus leucopterus hirtus Montandon 4024
Common Chinch Bug, Blissus leucopterus leucopterus (Say) 4025
Buffalograss Chinch Bug, Blissus occiduus 4025
Southern Chinch Bug, Blissus insularis Barber 4025
Cutworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 4026
Black Cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) 4026
Bronzed Cutworm, Nephelodes mimians Guenée 4028
Variegated Cutworm, Peridroma saucia (Hübner) 4028
Sod Webworms 4029
Crown and Thatch Inhabitants: Burrowing Insects 4030
Annual Bluegrass Weevil, Listronotus maculicollis (Dietz) 4031
Billbugs (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 4032
Bluegrass Billbug, Sphenophorus parvulus Gyllenhal 4032
Denver Billbug, Sphenophorus cicatristriatus Fahraeus 4033
Phoenician Billbug, Sphenophorus phoeniciensis Chittenden 4034
Hunting Billbug, Sphenophorus venatus vestitus Chittenden 4034
Soil Inhabitants: Root-Infesting Insects 4035
White Grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 4035
Aphodius Grubs, Aphodius granaries (L) and Aphodius paradalis Le Conte 4035
Asiatic Garden Beetle, Maladera castanea (Arrow) 4036
Black Turfgrass Ataenius, Ataenius spretulus Haldeman 4038
European Chafer, Rhizotrogus majalis (Razoumowsky) 4039
Green June Beetle, Cotinus nitida L 4040
Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman 4042
May Beetles, Phyllophaga spp. 4043
Northern and Southern Masked Chafers, Cyclocephala borealis (Arrow) and Cyclocephala lurida (Bland) 4044
Oriental Beetle, Exomala orientalis (Waterhouse) 4045
Mole Crickets (Scapteriscus spp) (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) 4046
Ground Pearls (Margarodes spp) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) 4048
Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 4049
Management of Turfgrass Insect Pests 4050
Sampling and Monitoring 4050
Pest Identification 4050
Decision-Making 4050
Appropriate Intervention 4051
Follow-up 4051
Record-Keeping 4051
Employee and Client Information 4051
Biological Control 4051
Chemical Control 4052
Leaf and Stem Insect Pests 4053
Thatch Inhabiting Insect Pests 4053
Root Zone/Soil Inhabiting Insect Pests 4053
Cultural Control 4054
Mowing 4054
Irrigation and Drainage 4054
Fertility 4055
Thatch Management 4055
Plant Resistance 4055
References 4056
Turnip Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) 4056
Life History 4056
Damage 4057
Management 4057
References 4058
Turnip Root Maggot, Delia floralis (Fallen) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) 4058
Life History 4058
Damage 4058
Management 4059
References 4059
Turtle Beetles 4059
Tussock Moths (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) 4059
References 4060
Twig Borer 4060
Twirler Moths (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) 4060
References 4061
Twisted-Wing Parasites 4061
Twospotted Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) 4061
Life History 4061
Damage 4062
Management 4063
References 4064
Twostriped Grasshopper, Melanoplus bivittatus (Say), (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 4064
Life History 4064
Damage 4065
Management 4066
References 4068
Two-Spotted Stink Bug, Perillus bioculatus (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae, Asopinae) 4068
References 4070
Tympanum 4070
Typhus 4070
Type Specimen 4071
fulltext_21.pdf 4073
Uenoidae 4073
Uhler, Philip Reese 4073
References 4073
Ulidiidae 4073
Ultra Low Volume (ULV) 4073
Ultrastructure of Insect Sensilla 4073
Cuticular Parts 4074
Classification of Sensilla 4074
Sensilla Trichodea 4076
Sensilla Chaetica 4076
Sensilla Basiconica 4076
Sensilla Coeloconica 4076
Sensilla Ampullacea 4076
Sensilla Squamiformia 4076
Sensilla Campaniformia 4078
Sensilla Placodea 4078
Sensilla Scolopophora 4078
Sensilla Styloconica 4078
Aporous (AP) Sensilla 4081
Mechanosensilla 4081
Thermo-Hygro Sensilla 4082
Uniporous (UP) Sensilla 4082
Multiporous (MP) Sensilla 4084
Multiporous Pitted (MPP) Sensilla 4084
Multiporous Grooved (MPG) Sensilla 4085
Sensory Neurons 4085
Sheath Cells 4086
References 4087
Unapparent Resources 4088
Underwing Moths - The Genus Catocala (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 4088
Distribution 4088
Phylogeny 4088
Biology 4089
Collection 4090
References 4090
Ungulate Lice 4090
Unique-Headed Bugs 4090
Unit of Habitat Sampling 4090
Univoltine 4090
Uraniidae 4090
Urban Entomology 4091
References 4095
Uric Acid 4095
Urodidae 4095
Urogenital Myiasis 4095
Urogomphus (pl., urogomphi) 4095
Urostylidae 4095
Urticaria 4095
Urticating Hairs 4096
Usinger, Robert Leslie 4096
Reference 4096
Uvarov, (SIR) Boris Petrovich 4096
References 4097
Uzelothripidae 4097
fulltext_22.pdf 4099
vagin* 4099
Valdivian Archaic Moths (Lepidoptera: Heterobathmiidae) 4099
References 4099
Valdivian Forest Moths (Lepidoptera: Andesianidae) 4099
References 4100
Van Den Bosch, Robert 4100
Reference 4100
Van Duzee, Edward Payson 4100
References 4101
Vanhorniidae 4101
Vannus 4101
Variable Intensity Sampling Plan 4102
Variegated 4102
Variegated Cutworm, Peridroma saucia (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 4102
Life History 4102
Damage 4104
Management 4104
References 4105
Variegated Mud-Loving Beetles 4105
Varley, George C 4105
Reference 4105
Varroa Mite, Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman (Acari: Varroidae) 4105
Varroa Mite Biology 4106
Effects of Varroa Mite 4108
Detection and Treatment of
Varroa Mite 4109
References 4112
Vas Efferens 4112
Vascular System 4112
Vascular Wilts 4112
Vas Deferens (pl. Vasa Deferentia) 4112
Vector 4112
Vector Capability of Blood-Sucking Arthropods: A Forecasting Matrix 4113
References 4116
Vector Competence 4116
Vectors of Phytoplasmas 4116
References 4117
Vegetable Leafminer, Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) 4117
Host Plants 4118
Natural Enemies 4118
Life Cycle and Description 4118
Egg 4118
Larva 4118
Pupa 4119
Adult 4119
Damage 4119
Management 4119
Sampling 4119
Insecticides 4119
Cultural Practices 4120
References 4120
Vegetable Pests and their Management 4120
Artichoke (Family Compositae) 4120
Asparagus (Family Liliaceae) 4130
Bean and Related Crops (Family Leguminosae) (Bush Bean, Chickpea, Cowpea, Dry Bean, English Pea, Faba Bean, Lentil, Lima Bean 4130
Beet and Related Crops (Family Chenopodiaceae) (Beet, Chard, Spinach, Swiss Chard) 4130
Cabbage and Related Crops (Family Cruciferae) (Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Chinese Cabbage, Collards.. 4131
Carrot and Related Crops (Family Umbelliferae) (Carrot, Celery, Celeriac, Chervil, Coriander, Fennel, Parsley, Parsnip) 4131
Lettuce and Related Crops (Family Compositae) (Celtuce, Chicory, Endive, Escarole, Lettuce, Radicchio) 4131
Okra (Family Malvaceae) 4132
Onion and Related Plants (Family Alliaceae) (Chive, Garlic, Leek, Onion, Shallot) 4132
Rhubarb (Family Polygonaceae) 4132
Squash and Related Crops (Family Cucurbitaceae) (Cucumber, Melons, Pumpkin, Squash, Watermelon, Etc) 4132
Sweet Corn (Family Graminae) 4133
Sweet Potato (Family Convolvulaceae) 4133
Tomato and Related Plants (Family Solanaceae) (Eggplant, Pepper, Potato, Tomatillo, Tomato) 4133
The Characteristics of Pests 4134
The Pest Complex 4134
Types of Damage 4135
Approaches to Pest Management 4135
References 4136
Vein 4136
Veliidae 4136
Velocipedidae 4137
Velvet Ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) 4137
General Characteristics 4138
Sexual Dimorphism 4138
Taxonomy 4138
Biology 4138
Defense 4139
References 4139
Velvet Water Bugs 4140
Velvety Shore Bugs 4140
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis 4140
Venoms and Toxins in Insects 4140
Distribution in the Insect World 4141
Sting and Venoms in the Hymenoptera 4141
Biological Function 4142
How Venoms Act Defensively: Pain 4142
How Venoms Act Defensively: Damage 4147
Insect Venoms and Ecological Factors and Opportunities 4151
Medical Aspects of Insect Venoms 4152
References 4153
Venoms of Ectoparasitic Wasps 4153
References 4155
Venoms of Endoparasitic Wasps 4156
References 4157
Ventral Diaphragm 4157
Ventral Nerve Cord 4158
Ventral 4158
Ventricle 4158
Ventriculus 4158
Vermiform 4158
Vermileonidae 4158
Vermileonidae 4158
Vermipsyllidae 4158
Vertex 4158
Vertical Transmission 4159
Verticillium lecanii 4159
Vesicating Species 4159
Vespidae 4159
Vestigial 4159
Veterinary Pests and their Management 4159
Host Response 4160
Economic Losses -Physical 4160
Economic Losses - Disease 4160
Economic Losses - Mechanical 4160
Relationship Between Pest and Host 4162
Feeding Sites 4162
Method of Attack 4163
Myiasis 4164
Management of Pests of Veterinary Importance 4164
References 4167
Vibrational Communication 4167
References 4169
Viburnum Leaf Beetle, Pyrrhalta viburni (Paykull) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 4169
References 4171
Viereck, Henry Lorenz 4171
Reference 4171
Vinegar Flies 4171
Vine Mealybug, Planococcus ficus Signoret (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) 4172
Within-Vine Distribution 4172
Biological Controls 4173
Insecticide Controls 4174
Cultural Controls 4174
Sampling Methods 4174
Other Mealybug Pest Species 4174
References 4174
Viral Flacherie 4175
Virginopara 4175
Viremia 4175
Virion 4175
Virulence 4175
Visual Attractants and Repellents in IPM 4175
References 4177
Visual Mating Signals 4177
Sexual Selection and the Evolution of Displays 4178
The Basis of Sexually Selected Signals 4178
Sexual Dimorphism and Sexually Selected Displays 4179
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Light in Communications 4179
UV Markings 4180
The Content of Intrasexual Displays 4180
The Content of Intersexual Displays 4182
Location Cues: Long-Distance Signals 4182
Courtship Displays 4183
Material Benefits 4183
Genetic Benefits 4184
Fisherian Run Away Selection 4186
Sensory Bias 4186
Copulatory and Postcopulatory Displays 4187
Mating Systems and Visual Displays 4188
The Locations of Ornaments and Colors 4189
The Phyletic Distribution of Visual Sexual Displays 4190
Conclusion 4190
References 4190
Vitamins 4190
Vitelline Membrane 4191
Vitellogenesis 4191
Vitellin, the Stored Protein of Yolk 4191
Vitellogenesis, the Period of Yolk Uptake 4193
Endocrine Control of Vitellogenesis 4194
References 4195
Vitellogenin 4195
Viviparous 4195
Volant 4195
Volatility 4195
Volunteer Plants 4195
Vulva 4195
fulltext_23.pdf 4197
Waggle Dance 4197
Walker, Francis 4197
References 4197
Walkingstick Defensive Behavior and Regeneration of Appendages 4197
References 4199
Walkingsticks 4199
Waloff, Nadejda 4199
Reference 4199
Walsh, Benjamin Dann 4199
Reference 4200
Walsingham, (Lord) Thomas De Gray 4200
Reference 4200
Warble Flies 4200
Wasmann, Erich 4200
References 4201
Wasmannian Mimicry 4201
Wasp Moths 4201
Wasps 4201
Wasps, Ants, Bees and Sawflies (Hymenoptera) 4201
Morphological Characters 4202
Classification 4203
Key to the Superfamilies 4204
Suborder: Symphyta (Chalastogastra) 4206
Suborder: Apocrita (Clistogastra) 4207
Treatment of Representative Superfamilies and Familiess 4207
Suborder: Symphyta 4207
Superfamily: Cephoidea 4207
Superfamily: Megalodontoidea 4207
Superfamily: Orussoidea 4208
Superfamily: Siricoidea 4208
Superfamily: Tenthredinoidea 4208
Suborder: Apocrita 4208
Superfamily: Cynipoidea 4209
Superfamily: Evanioidea 4210
Superfamily: Ichneumonoidea 4210
Superfamily: Proctotrupoidea 4211
Superfamily: Platygasteroidea 4211
Superfamily: Stephanoidea 4211
Suborder: Apocrita 4212
Group: Aculeata 4212
Superfamily: Apoidea 4212
Superfamily Sphecoidea - Sphecoid Wasps 4213
Superfamily: Chrysidoidea 4214
Superfamily: Vespoidea - Wasps and Ants 4215
References 4216
Water Balance 4217
Water Loss 4217
Cuticle 4217
Respiration 4217
Excretion 4218
Water Gain 4219
Food 4219
Drinking 4219
Metabolism 4219
Vapor Absorption 4219
Desiccation Resistance 4219
Behavioral Avoidance of Desiccation 4219
Mechanisms of Desiccation Resistance
in Fruit Flies 4220
References 4220
Water Bugs 4220
Water Measurers 4220
Water Penny Beetles (Coleoptera: Psephenidae) 4220
References 4221
Water Pollution and Insects 4222
Detection of Pollution Effects
in Insects 4223
Responses of Aquatic Insect Groups to Pollution 4224
Responses of Aquatic Insects
to Pollution 4226
Organic Wastes 4227
Chemical Wastes 4227
Physical Wastes 4228
Use of Insects in Biomonitoring 4228
The Practice of Biomonitoring 4229
Species Richness 4230
Abundance 4230
Evenness and Diversity 4231
Biotic Indices 4231
Functional Feeding Groups 4231
Other Techniques 4232
Conclusion 4232
References 4232
Water Scavenger Beetles 4232
Waterscorpions 4233
Water Springtails 4233
Water Striders 4233
Water Treaders 4233
Wax 4233
Wax Channels 4233
Wax Scales 4233
Web-Lovers 4233
Webspinners (Embiidina) 4233
Characteristics 4234
Evolution 4235
Classification 4235
References 4236
Web-Spinning Sawflies 4236
Webworms (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 4236
Wedge-Shaped Beetles 4236
Weeds in Crop Systems for Pest Suppression 4236
Louisiana Sugarcane 4237
South Texas Cotton 4239
References 4240
Weed Biological Control in Australia 4241
History 4241
Programs Undertaken 4242
Prickly Pear, Opuntia spp. (Cactaceae) 4242
Salvinia, Salvinia molesta DS Mitch (Salviniaceae) 4243
Lantana, Lantana camara L (Verbenaceae) 4243
PatersonŁs Curse, Echium plantagineum L (Boraginaceae) 4244
Bridal Creeper, Asparagus asparagoides Druce (Asparagaceae) 4244
Weedy Trees 4245
Parthenium Weed, Parthenium hysterophorus L (Asteraceae) 4246
Looking Forward 4247
References 4248
Weevils, Billbugs, Bark Beetles, and Others (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) 4248
Family Nemonychidae, Pine-Flower Snout Beetles 4254
Family Anthribidae, Fungus Weevils 4254
Family Belidae 4255
Family Attelabidae, Leaf-Rolling and Tooth-Nosed Weevils 4255
Family Caridae 4256
Family Brentidae, Straight-Snouted and Pear-Shaped Weevils 4256
Family Curculionidae, Snout Beetles Including Bark and Ambrosia Beetles 4258
Subfamily Dryophthorinae - Billbugs, Palm and Grain Weevils 4260
Subfamily Brachycerinae 4260
Subfamily Curculioninae 4261
Subfamily Bagoinae 4262
Subfamily Baridinae 4262
Subfamily Ceutorhynchinae 4262
Subfamily Conoderinae 4263
Subfamily Cossoninae-Broad-Nosed Bark Weevils 4263
Subfamily Cryptorhynchinae 4263
Subfamily Cyclominae 4263
Subfamily Entiminae-Broad-Nosed or Root Weevils 4263
Subfamily Hyperinae-Clover Weevils 4264
Subfamily Lixinae 4264
Subfamily Molytinae 4264
Subfamily Platypodinae-Pin-Hole Borers 4265
Subfamily Scolytinae-Bark Beetles or Engravers, and Ambrosia Beetles 4265
References 4266
Wesmael, Constantin 4267
Reference 4267
References 4268
Western Blots 4268
References 4271
Life Stages 4272
Life Cycle 4273
Pheromone Systems 4274
Biological Control 4274
Within Field Distribution of Western Grapeleaf Skeletonizer 4274
Pheromone Traps as Monitoring Tools 4275
Simulation Phenology Model 4275
References 4275
References 4277
Western Thatching Ant, Formica obscuripes (Forel) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) 4278
References 4280
West Indian Sweetpotato Weevil, Eusceps postfasciatus (Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) 4280
West Nile Fever 4280
References 4281
Weta (Orthoptera: Anostostomatidae, Rhaphidophoridae) 4281
References 4283
Westwood, John Obadiah 4283
References 4283
Wetas and King Crickets 4283
Wettable Powder 4283
Wheat Bulb Fly, Delia coarctata (Fallon) 4284
Wheat Curl Mite, Aceria tosichella (Kiefer) (Acari: Eriophyiae) 4284
Wheat Ground Beetle, Zabrus tenebrioides (Goeze) (Coleoptera: Carabidae) 4284
Wheat Head Armyworm, Faronia diffusa (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 4284
Wheat Jointworm, Tetramesa tritici (Fitch) (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) 4284
Wheat Pests and Their Management 4284
Wheat Curl Mite 4289
Winter Grain Mite 4290
Banks Grass Mite 4290
Brown Wheat Mite 4291
Thrips 4291
Say Stink Bug 4292
Sunn Pest 4292
Bird Cherry-Oat Aphid 4293
Corn Leaf Aphid 4293
English Grain Aphid 4293
Greenbug 4294
Rose-Grain Aphid 4294
Russian Wheat Aphid 4294
Army Cutworm 4295
Armyworm 4295
Pale Western Cutworm 4296
Wheat Head Armyworm 4296
Wheat Ground Beetle 4297
Cereal Leaf Beetle 4297
Wireworms and False Wireworms 4298
Wheat Bulb Fly 4298
Hessian Fly 4299
Wheat Midge 4299
Frit Fly 4300
Wheat Stem Maggot 4300
Sawflies 4300
Wheat Jointworm 4301
Wheat Strawworm 4301
References 4302
Wheat Stem Maggot, Meromyza americana Fitch (Diptera: Chloropidae) 4302
Host Plants 4303
Biology 4304
Damage and Yield Loss 4304
Natural Enemies 4304
Management 4305
References 4305
Wheat Thrips, (Thysanoptera) 4306
Wheeler, William Morton 4306
References 4306
Whiplash Dermatitis 4306
Whirligig Beetles 4306
Whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 4306
Appearance and Biology 4307
Damage 4307
Greenhouse Whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) 4307
Host Plants 4308
Natural Enemies 4308
Life Cycle and Description 4308
Damage 4309
Management 4310
Silverleaf Whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring and Sweetpotato (or Cotton) Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn 4311
Host Plants 4311
Weather 4311
Natural Enemies 4311
Life Cycle and Description 4311
Damage 4312
Management 4313
Disease Transmission 4314
References 4314
Whitefly Bioecology and Management in Latin America 4314
Damage and Economic Importance 4314
Bioecological Characteristics 4315
Genetic Plasticity 4318
Reproductive Potential 4318
Virus Transmission 4320
Management Alternatives 4321
Phytosanitary Campaigns 4321
Host Plant Resistance 4322
Physical Exclusion 4322
Mulching 4323
Chemical Repellents 4323
Concluding Remarks 4323
References 4324
White Grubs, Phyllophaga, and Others (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 4324
Life History 4324
Damage 4326
Management 4327
References 4327
White Muscardine 4328
Whites 4328
Whorl 4328
Wiedemann, Christian Rudolph Wilhelm 4328
Reference 4328
Wigglesworth, (SIR) Vincent Brian 4328
Reference 4328
Williams, Carroll Milton 4329
Reference 4329
Williston, Samuel Wendell 4329
Reference 4329
Wilt Disease 4329
Window Flies 4330
Wing 4330
Wing Coupling 4330
The ŁHemipteroid AssemblageŽ 4331
Psocoptera 4333
Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha 4333
Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha 4334
Heteroptera + Coleorrhyncha 4334
Thysanoptera 4334
Endopterygota 4334
Mecoptera 4334
Hymenoptera 4335
Trichoptera 4335
Lepidoptera 4336
References 4336
Wing Covers 4337
Winged Walkingsticks 4337
Wing Pad 4337
Wings of Insects 4337
Areas of the Wing 4337
Wing Form 4338
Wing Coupling 4339
Wing Venation 4339
References 4340
Wing Venation 4340
Winter Crane Flies 4340
Winter Grain Mite, Penthaleus major (Duges) (Acari: Penthaleidae) 4340
References 4343
Winter Stoneflies 4343
Wireworm 4343
Wireworms, Several Genera and Species (Coleoptera: Elateridae) 4343
Life History 4344
Damage 4344
Management 4345
References 4345
Wireworms of Potato 4345
Wireworms of Wheat 4346
Wirth, Willis Wagner 4346
Reference 4346
Witches Broom 4346
Wolcott, George N 4346
References 4347
Wollaston, Thomas Vernon 4347
References 4348
Wood-Attacking Insects 4348
Carpenter Ants 4348
Termites 4350
Powderpost Beetles 4354
Old House Borer 4356
Other Wood-Damaging Insects 4356
References 4357
Wood Gnats 4357
Wood Nymphs 4357
Wood Rot 4357
Woody Vegetation 4357
Wood Wasps 4357
Wood-Stain Diseases 4357
Woolly Aphids 4357
Woolly Whitefly 4358
Worker 4358
Worm Lions 4358
Wrinkled Bark Beetles 4358
fulltext_24.pdf 4359
X-Chromosome 4359
Xenasteiidae 4359
Xenic Culture 4359
Xerophytic 4359
Xiphocentonidae 4359
Xiphydriidae 4359
Xyelidae 4359
Xylomyid Flies 4359
Xylomyidae 4359
Xylophagid Flies 4359
Xylophagidae 4359
Xylophagous 4360
Xyphiopsyllidae 4360
fulltext_25.pdf 4361
Y-Chromosome 4361
Yellow Dog Tick, Haemaphysalis leachi (Audouin) (Acari: Ixodidae) 4361
Yellow-Faced Bees 4361
Yellow Fever 4361
Insect Vectors 4361
The Virus 4362
The Disease 4362
Impact and Problems 4363
References 4363
Yellow Flies 4364
Yellow Jackets 4364
Yellow Mealworms 4364
Yellows 4364
Yellowstriped Armyworm, Spodoptera ornithogalli (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 4364
Life History 4364
Damage 4366
Management 4366
References 4366
Yellow-White Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) 4366
References 4367
Yolk 4367
Yponomeutidae 4367
Young, Jr., David A 4367
Reference 4368
Yucca Moths (Lepidoptera: Prodoxidae) 4368
References 4368
fulltext_26.pdf 4369
Zachvatkin (Jasykov), Aleksei Alekseevich 4369
Reference 4370
Zeller, Philipp Christoph 4370
References 4370
Zetterstedt, Johann Wilhelm 4370
Reference 4370
Zoogeographic Realms 4370
Australian Realm 4371
Oriental Realm 4371
Ethiopian Realm 4371
Neotropical Realm 4371
Holarctic Realm 4371
Zoogeography 4371
Zoonosis (pl. zoonoses) 4372
Zoophagous 4372
Zopheridae 4372
Zoraptera 4372
Zorapterans 4372
Zorotypidae 4372
Zygaenidae 4372
Zygote 4372
back-matter.pdf 4373
Index 4373